Le texto fonte de Historia del scientia

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Le '''historia del scientia''' tracta le evolution del [[scientia]] ab le [[antiquitate]] usque al presente. Illo comprehende omne tres brancas principal del scientia: le [[Scientia natural|natural]], le [[Scientia social|social]] e le [[Scientias formal|formal]].<ref name = "cohen2021">{{cite book | last = Cohen | first = Eliel | year = 2021 | chapter = The boundary lens: theorising academic activity | title = The University and its Boundaries |edition=1st | url = https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 | pages = 14–41 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York, New York | isbn = 978-0367562984 | access-date = 8 June 2021 | archive-date = 5 May 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210505045450/https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 | url-status = live }}</ref>

Le radices le plus ancian del scientia pote esser traciate usque al [[Egypto antique]] e Mesopotamia circa 3.000 a 1.200 a.Chr.<ref name= "lindberg2007a" >{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = Science before the Greeks | title= The Beginnings of Western Science| pages = 1–20 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref><ref name= "Grant2007a">{{cite book | last= Grant| first= Edward | year = 2007 | chapter = Ancient Egypt to Plato | title= A History of Natural Philosophy | url= https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran| url-access= limited| pages = [https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n16 1]–26| location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-052-1-68957-1}}</ref> Le contributiones de iste civilisationes al [[mathematica]], [[astronomia]] e [[medicina]] influentiava posteriormente le philosophia natural grec del antiquitate classic, ubi se faceva tentativas formal de provider explicationes de eventos in le mundo physic basate sur causas natural.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/><ref name= "Grant2007a"/> Post le cadita del Imperio Roman Occidental, le cognoscimento del conceptiones grec del mundo decadite in le [[Europa Occidental]] que parlava latino durante le prime seculos (400 a 1.000 p.Chr.) del [[Medievo]],<ref name= "lindberg2007i">{{cite book | last = Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The revival of learning in the West | title=The Beginnings of Western Science| pages = 193–224 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn=978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> ma continuava a prosperar in le Imperio Roman Oriental (o [[Imperio Byzantin|Byzantino]]) que parlava greco. Adjutate per translationes de textos grec, le vision [[Hellenismo|hellenistic]] esseva preservate e absorbite in le mundo musulman arabophone durante le Periodo de Auro Islamic.<ref name= "lindberg2007h">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = Islamic science | title= The Beginnings of Western Science| pages = 163–92 | edition = Second | location = Chicago| publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn=978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> Le recuperation e assimilation de operas grec e investigationes islamic in Europa Occidental del seculo X a XIII reviveva le studio del philosophia natural in le Occidente.<ref name= "lindberg2007i"/><ref name= "lindberg2007j" >{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The recovery and assimilation of Greek and Islamic science | title= The Beginnings of Western Science| pages= 225–253| edition = 2nd | location = Chicago| publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref>

Le philosophia natural esseva transformate durante le Revolution Scientific in le Europa del seculos XVI e XVII,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Küskü |first=Elif Aslan |date=2022-01-01 |title=Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body / Bilimsel Devrim Tıbbını İnsan Bedeni Üzerinden İncelemek |url=https://www.academia.edu/87500649 |journal=The Legends: Journal of European History Studies |access-date=28 September 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112202215/https://www.academia.edu/87500649 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hendrix |first=Scott E. |title=Natural Philosophy or Science in Premodern Epistemic Regimes? The Case of the Astrology of Albert the Great and Galileo Galilei |journal=Teorie Vědy / Theory of Science |year=2011 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=111–132 |doi=10.46938/tv.2011.72 |s2cid=258069710 |url=http://teorievedy.flu.cas.cz/index.php/tv/issue/view/10 |access-date=20 February 2012 |archive-date=18 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121118024030/http://teorievedy.flu.cas.cz/index.php/tv/issue/view/10 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name= "Principe2011">{{cite book | last= Principe | first= Lawrence M. | year = 2011 | chapter = Introduction | title = Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction | pages = 1–3 | location = New York| publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-199-56741-6}}</ref> como nove ideas e revelationes se disassociava del conceptiones e traditiones grec precedente.<ref name= "Lindberg1990">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 1990 | chapter = Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch | title=Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution | editor-first1 = David C. | editor-last1 = Lindberg | editor-first2 = Robert S. | editor-last2 = Westman | pages = 1–26 | edition = First | location = Chicago | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-0-521-34262-9}}</ref><ref name= "lindberg2007n">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The legacy of ancient and medieval science | title= The Beginnings of Western Science| pages= 357–368| edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref><ref name= "Stanford Encyclopedia">{{Cite book|url= https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|title= The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last= Del Soldato|first= Eva|date= 2016|publisher= Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|editor-last= Zalta|editor-first= Edward N.|edition= Fall 2016|access-date= June 1, 2018|archive-date= December 11, 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191211205744/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name= Grant2007c>{{cite book | last= Grant | first = Edward | year = 2007 | chapter = Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century | title= A History of Natural Philosophy | url= https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran | url-access= limited | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n289 274]–322 | location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-052-1-68957-1}}</ref> Le Nove Scientia que emergeva esseva plus mechanistic in su vision del mundo, plus integrate con mathematica e plus fidibile e aperite, proque su cognoscimento esseva basate sur un [[methodo scientific]] recentemente definite.<ref name= "lindberg2007n"/><ref name= "gal2021i">{{cite book | last= Gal | first = Ofer | year = 2021 | chapter = The New Science | title = The Origins of Modern Science | pages = 308–349 | location = New York, New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-1316649701}}</ref><ref name= "bowlermorus2020b">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The scientific revolution | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 25–57 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref> Plus de "revolutiones" in le seculos subsequente sequeva tosto. Le revolution chimic del seculo XVIII, pro exemplo, introduceva nove methodos e mensurationes quantitative pro le [[chimia]].<ref name= "bowlermorus2020c">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The chemical revolution | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 58–82 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref> In le seculo XIX, nove perspectivas concernente le [[conservation de energia]], le epocha del Terra e le [[evolution]] veniva in concentration.<ref name= "bowlermorus2020d">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The conservation of energy | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 83–107 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref><ref name= "bowlermorus2020e">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The age of the earth | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 108–133 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref><ref name= "bowlermorus2020f">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The Darwinian revolution | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 134–171 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref><ref name= "Cahan Natural Philosophy">{{cite book | editor1-last= Cahan | editor1-first= David | title= From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science | date= 2003 | publisher= University of Chicago Press | location= Chicago |isbn= 978-0-226-08928-7}}</ref><ref>The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834.</ref><ref name= "Lightman 19th">{{cite book|last1= Lightman|first1= Bernard|editor1-last= Shank|editor1-first= Michael|editor2-last= Numbers|editor2-first= Ronald|editor3-last= Harrison|editor3-first= Peter|title= Wrestling with Nature |date= 2011|publisher= University of Chicago Press|location= Chicago|isbn= 978-0-226-31783-0|page= 367|chapter=Science and the Public}}</ref> E in le seculo XX, nove revelationes in [[genetica]] e [[physica]] poneva le bases pro nove subdisciplinas como biologia molecular e physica de particulas.<ref name= "bowlermorus2020h">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = Genetics | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 197–221 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref><ref name= "bowlermorus2020k">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = Twentieth-century physics | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 262–285 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref> De plus, le preoccupationes industrial e militar, assi como le crescente complexitate de nove interprisas de recerca, introduceva le epocha del "scientia grande," particularmente post le Secunde Guerra Mundial.<ref name= "bowlermorus2020h"/><ref name= "bowlermorus2020k"/><ref name= "bowlermorus2020a">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = Introduction: Science, society, and history | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 1–24 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref>

== Accostamentos al historia del scientia ==
Le natura del historia del scientia es un thema de debatto (assi como, per implication, le definition del scientia mesme). Le historia del scientia es frequentemente considerate como un historia linear de progresso<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = von Wright
 |first1               = Georg Henrik
 |author-link1         = Georg Henrik von Wright
 |editor-last1         = Burgen
 |editor-first1        = Arnold
 |editor-last2         = McLaughlin
 |editor-first2        = Peter
 |editor-last3         = Mittelstraß
 |editor-first3        = Jürgen
 |editor-link3         = Jürgen Mittelstraß
 |date                 = 25 October 2012
 |orig-date            = 1997
 |chapter              = Progress: Fact and Fiction
 |title                = The Idea of Progress
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=kZ8gAAAAQBAJ
 |series               = Philosophie und Wissenschaft - Volume 13
 |edition              = reprint
 |publication-place    = Berlin
 |publisher            = Walter de Gruyter
 |page                 = 14
 |isbn                 = 9783110820423
 |access-date          = 13 October 2023
 |quote                = In historic reflections on art, cyclic schemas play a prominent role. This is a difference between art history and science history. The idea of linear progress simply does not apply in the esthetic domain.
}} 
</ref>, ma historicos ha comenciate vider le historia como plus complexe.<ref>{{Cite book |last= Kragh |first= Helge |title= An introduction to the historiography of science |date= 1987 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 0-521-33360-1 |location= Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] |oclc= 14692886}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title= A companion to the history of science |date= 2016 |author= Bernard V. Lightman |isbn= 978-1-118-62077-9 |location= Chichester (GB) |oclc= 950521936 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yQj9CgAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Golinski
 |first1               = Jan
 |date                 = 22 July 2008
 |orig-date            = 1998
 |title                = Making Natural Knowledge: Constructivism and the History of Science
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=SZcCElvmF7sC
 |series               = Cambridge history of science
 |edition              = revised
 |publication-place    = Chicago
 |publisher            = University of Chicago Press
 |page                 = 188
 |isbn                 = 9780226302324
 |access-date          = 13 October 2023
 |quote                = [...] historical writing [...] has largely abandoned the aim of telling a story of science's universal progress.
}} 
</ref> Alfred Edward Taylor ha characterisate periodos magre in le avantiamento del discoperta scientific como "bancaruptas periodic del scientia".<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Thomas
 |first1               = Norman
 |year                 = 1961
 |title                = Great Dissenters
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=FQ_PyhHvACoC
 |publisher            = Norton
 |page                 = 25
 |access-date          = 13 October 2023
 |quote                = [...] the brilliant Periclean Age, according to Dr. A. E. Taylor, witnessed one of the periodical bankruptcies of science [...].
}} 
</ref>

Le scientia es un activitate human, e contributiones scientific ha provenite de personas de un grande varietate de differente contextos e culturas. Historicos del scientia vider sempre plus lor campo como parte de un historia global de excambio, conflicto e collaboration.<ref>{{Cite book |last= Poskett |first= James |title= Horizons : a global history of science |date= 2022 |isbn= 978-0-241-39409-0 |location= [London] |oclc= 1235416152}}</ref>

Le relation inter scientia e religion ha essite characterisate de manieras diverse in terminos de "conflicto", "harmonia", "complexitate" e "independentia mutual", inter alteres. Eventos in Europa, como le affaire Galileo in le principio del seculo XVII - associate con le revolution scientific e le [[Illuminismo]] - ha conducite scholasticos como John William Draper a postular (circa 1874) un these de conflicto, suggerente que religion e scientia ha essite in conflicto methodologic, factual e politic a transverso le historia. Le these de "conflicto" ha depost perdite le favor inter le majoritate de scientistas contemporanee e historicos del scientia.<ref name="Russel, C.A. 2002 7">{{cite book |author= Russel, C.A. |editor= Ferngren, G.B.|year= 2002| title= Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction |page= 7 |publisher= [[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-8018-7038-5 |quote= The conflict thesis, at least in its simple form, is now widely perceived as a wholly inadequate intellectual framework within which to construct a sensible and realistic historiography of Western science.}}</ref><ref name="Shapin1996">{{cite book | author = Shapin, S. | year = 1996 | title = The Scientific Revolution | url = https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu00shap_0 | url-access = registration | page = [https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu00shap_0/page/195 195] | publisher = [[University of Chicago Press]] | isbn = 978-0226750200 | quote = In le tardo periodo victorian, illo esseva commun scriber sur le 'belligerentia inter scientia e religion' e presumere que le duo corpores de cultura sempre debeva haber stato in conflicto. Tamen, il es un tempore multo longe desde que iste attitudines esseva retinite per historicos del scientia.}}</ref><ref name="Brooke1991">{{cite book | author = Brooke, J. H.| year = 1991 | title = Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives | page= 42 | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | quote = In its traditional forms, the conflict thesis has been largely discredited.}}</ref> Tamen, alcun philosophos e scientistas contemporanee, como Richard Dawkins,<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Taliaferro
 |first1               = Charles
 |author-link1         = Charles Taliaferro
 |editor-last1         = Oppy
 |editor-first1        = Graham
 |editor-link1         = Graham Oppy
 |editor-last2         = Trakakis
 |editor-first2        = N. N.
 |editor-link2         = Nick Trakakis
 |date                 = 11 September 2014
 |orig-date            = 2009
 |title                = Twentieth-Century Philosophy of Religion
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=N2h_BAAAQBAJ
 |series               = The History of Western Philosophy of Religion, Volume 5
 |edition              = reprint
 |publication-place    = Abingdon
 |publisher            = Routledge
 |isbn                 = 9781317546382
 |access-date          = 13 October 2023
 |chapter              = Twentieth-century Philosophy of Religiion: An Introduction
 |quote                = Al levar del vintesime seculo, le defensores del these del conflicto es ben representate per Richard Dawkins, E. O. Wilson e Daniel Dennett.}} 
</ref> ancora subscribe a iste these.

Historicos ha accentuate[citation requirite] que fides es necessari pro accordo sur esseres in le natura. In iste lumine, le establimento in 1660 del Societate Royal e su codice de experimentos - fidibile proque esseva testate per su membros - ha devenite un importante capitulo in le historiographia del scientia.<ref>{{Cite book |last= Shapin |first= Steven |title= Leviathan and the air-pump : Hobbes, Boyle, and the experimental life |date= 2018 |isbn= 978-0-691-17816-5  |location=Princeton, N.J. |oclc=984327399}}</ref> Multe personas in le historia moderne (typicamente feminas e personas de color) esseva excluse ab communitates scientific elitari e characterisate per le establimento scientific como inferior. Historicos in le annos 1980 e 1990 ha describite le barrieras structural al participation e ha comenciate a recuperar le contributiones de personas ignorate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schiebinger |first= Londa L. |title= Nature's body : gender in the making of modern science |date= 2013 |publisher= Rutgers University Press |isbn= 978-0-8135-3531-9 |edition= 5th pbk. print |location= New Brunswick, N.J. |oclc= 1048657291}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= Haraway |first= Donna Jeanne |title= Primate visions : gender, race, and nature in the world of modern science |date=1989 |publisher= Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-60815-5 |location=New York |oclc=555643149}}</ref> Historicos ha anque investigate le practicas quotidian del scientia, como le travalio de campo e le collection de specimens,<ref>{{Cite journal |last= Kohler |first= Robert E. |date=December 2007 |title=Finders, Keepers: Collecting Sciences and Collecting Practice |journal= History of Science |volume= 45 |issue=4 |pages=428–454 |doi= 10.1177/007327530704500403 |s2cid= 147175644 |issn= 0073-2753}}</ref> le correspondentia,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Secord |first=Anne |date=December 1994 |title=Corresponding interests: artisans and gentlemen in nineteenth-century natural history |journal=The British Journal for the History of Science |volume= 27 |issue= 4 |pages= 383–408 |doi= 10.1017/S0007087400032416 |s2cid= 144777485 |issn= 0007-0874|doi-access=free }}</ref> le designo,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasim |first=Omar W. |title= Observing by hand : sketching the nebulae in the nineteenth century |date= 2013 |isbn= 978-0-226-08440-4 |location=Chicago |oclc=868276095}}</ref> le registro,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eddy |first= Matthew Daniel |date= 2016 |title= The Interactive Notebook: How Students Learned to Keep Notes during the Scottish Enlightenment |journal= Book History |volume= 19 |issue=1 |pages=86–131 |doi= 10.1353/bh.2016.0002 |s2cid=151427109 |issn=1529-1499 |url= http://dro.dur.ac.uk/19136/1/19136.pdf |access-date= 17 September 2022 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220615185141/https://dro.dur.ac.uk/19136/1/19136.pdf |url-status= live }}</ref> e le uso de equipamento de laboratorio e de campo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schaffer |first= Simon |date= 1992-06-01 |editor-last= Bud |editor-first= Robert |editor2-last= Cozzens |editor2-first= Susan E. |title= Invisible Connections: Instruments, Institutions, and Science |chapter= Late Victorian metrology and its instrumentation: A manufactory of Ohms |journal=<!---->|series= SPIE Conference Series |volume=10309 |page=1030904  |doi= 10.1117/12.2283709|bibcode= 1992SPIE10309E..04S |s2cid=115323404 }}</ref>

== Tempores prehistoric ==
In tempores prehistoric, cognoscentia e technica se transmitteva de generation a generation per tradition oral. Per exemplo, le domestication de mais pro agricultura ha essite datate a circa 9.000 annos retro in Mexico meridional, ante le evolution de systemas de scriptura.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Matsuoka | first1=Yoshihiro | last2=Vigouroux | first2=Yves | last3=Goodman | first3=Major M. | last4=Sanchez G. | first4=Jesus | last5=Buckler | first5=Edward | last6=Doebley | first6=John | title=A single domestication for maize shown by multilocus microsatellite genotyping | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=99 | issue=9 | pages=6080–6084 | date=30 April 2002 | pmid=11983901 | pmc=122905 | doi=10.1073/pnas.052125199 |bibcode=2002PNAS...99.6080M | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/25/science/25creature.html?_r=1 Sean B. Carroll (24 May 2010),"Tracking the Ancestry of Corn Back 9,000 Years" ''New York Times''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830121104/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/25/science/25creature.html?_r=1 |date=30 August 2017 }}.</ref><ref>Francesca Bray (1984), ''[[Science and Civilisation in China]]'' '''VI.2''' '''''Agriculture''''' pp 299, 453 scribe que le [[teosinte]], 'le patre del gran', adjuva le successo e vitalitate del gran quando plantate inter le raderas de su 'infantes', le [[maize]].</ref> Similemente, evidentia archeologic indica le evolution de cognoscentia astronomic in societates prelitterate.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Hoskin | first=Michael | title=Tombs, Temples and their Orientations: a New Perspective on Mediterranean Prehistory | place=Bognor Regis, UK | publisher=Ocarina Books | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-9540867-1-8 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last=Ruggles | first=Clive | author-link=Clive Ruggles | title=Astronomy in Prehistoric Britain and Ireland | place=New Haven | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1999 | isbn=978-0-300-07814-5 }}</ref>

Le tradition oral de societates prelitterate habeva plure characteristicas, del quales le prime esseva su fluiditate.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Nove information esseva constantemente absorbite e adjustate a nove circumstantias o necessitates del communitate. Il non habeva archivos o reportos. Iste fluiditate esseva intimemente ligate al necessitate practic de explicar e justificar un stato presente de affaires.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Altere characteristicas esseva le tendentia a describer le universo como simplemente celo e terra, con un potential mundo subterranee. Illes anque era propense a identificar causas con initios, forniente assi un origine historic con un explication. Il habeva anque un dependentia de un 'homine de medicina' o 'femina sage' pro curar, cognoscentia del causas divin o demoniac de morbos, e in casos plus extreme, pro rituales como exorcismo, divination, cantos e incantationes.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Finalmente, il habeva un inclination a acceptar sin questionar explicationes que poterea esser considerate implausibile in tempores plus moderne, simultaneemente non essente consciente que tal comportamentos credule pote haber presentate problemas.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/>

Le evolution del scriptura permitteva al humanos conservar e communicar cognoscentia trans generationes con multo plus grande precision. Su invention esseva un prerequisito pro le evolution de philosophia e postea scientia in tempores antique.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> In ultra, le grado in le qual philosophia e scientia florescerea in tempores antique dependeva del efficacia de un systema de scriptura (p.ex., le uso de alphabetos).<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/>

== Le plus antique radices ==
Le radices le plus ancian de scientia pote esser traciate al [[Egypto antique]] e Mesopotamia circa le 3.000 a 1.200 a.C.<ref name="lindberg2007a"/>

=== Egypto antique ===
==== Systema numerari e geometria ====
A partir de circa 3.000 a.C., le ancian egyptios developpava un systema numerari que esseva de character decimal e habeva orientate lor cognoscentia de geometria verso resolver problemas practic como illos de agrimensores e constructores.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Lor evolution de geometria esseva per se un evolution necessari de agrimensura pro preservar le disposition e proprietate del terreno agricole, que esseva inundate annualmente per le fluvio Nilo. Le triangulo rectangule de 3-4-5 e altere regulas de geometria esseva usate pro construer structuras rectilinear, e le architectura de postes e linteles de Egypto.

==== Maladia e sanation ====
[[File:PEbers c41-bc.jpg|thumb|upright|Le Papyrus Ebers (circa 1550 a.C.) ex le [[antique Egypto]].]]
Egyptia anque esseva un centro de recerca alchimic pro multo del Mediterraneo. Basate in le papyros medicinal scribite inter 2.500 e 1.200 a.C., le ancian egyptios credeva que le morbo esseva principalmente causate per le invasion de corpores per fortias malevole o spiritos.[2] Assi, ultra usar medicamentos, lor therapias de cura includeva preces, incantationes e ritual.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Le Papiro Ebers, scribite circa 1.600 a.C., contine prescriptiones medicinal pro tractar morbos associate con le oculos, bucca, cute, organos interne, e extremitates, alsi como abscessos, feritas, combustiones, ulceres, glandulas inflammate, tumores, cephaleas, e mesme halito mal.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Le Papiro Edwin Smith, scribite circa le mesme periodo, contine un manual chirurgic pro tractar feritas, fracturas, e dislocationes. Le egyptios credeva que le efficacia de lor medicamentos dependeva del preparation e administration sub rituales appropriate.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Historicos medicinal crede que le pharmacologia antique egyptian, pro exemplo, esseva largemente inefficace.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite book |last=Perkins |first=Michael D. |chapter=Pharmacological Practices of Ancient Egypt |title=Proceedings of the 10th Annual History of Medicine Days |hdl=1880/51835 |editor=W. A. Whitelaw |access-date=9 March 2010 |url=http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407062556/http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf |language=en |publisher=Faculty of Medicine, The University of Calgary |location=Calgary |date=2001 |pages=5–11 |archive-date=2008-04-07 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407062556/http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf |date=2008-04-07 }}</ref> E le Papiro Ebers e le Papiro Edwin Smith applicava le sequente componentes al tractamento del morbo: examination, diagnose, tractamento, e prognosis,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Edwin Smith papyrus: Egyptian medical book |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Edwin-Smith-papyrus |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=21 December 2016 |archive-date=1 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101084403/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/179901/Edwin-Smith-papyrus |url-status=live }}</ref> le quales monstra parallelos fortissime al methodo empiric basic del scientia e, secundo G.E.R. Lloyd,<ref>Lloyd, G.E.R.  "The development of empirical research", in his ''Magic, Reason and Experience: Studies in the Origin and Development of Greek Science''.</ref> jocava un rolo significante in le evolution de iste methodologia.

==== Calendario ====
Le antique egyptios etiam developpava un calendario official que contineva dece menses, trenta dies cata uno, e cinque dies al fin del anno.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Al contrario del calendario babylonian o de illos usate in le metropoles grec de ille epocha, le calendario official egyptian esseva multo plus simple, proque illo esseva fixe e non prendeva in consideration cyclos lunar e solar.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/>

=== Mesopotamia ===
[[File:Divinatory livers Louvre AO19837.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|Modellas de argilla de figatos de animales que datan del XIX al XVIII seculo a.C., trovate in le palatio regal a [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] in lo que nunc es Syria.]]
Le antique mesopotamianos habeva un cognoscentia extensive sur le proprietates chimic de argilla, arena, metallos, bitumine, petra, e altere materiales natural, e applicava iste cognoscentia a usos practic in le manufactura de ceramica, faience, vitro, sapon, metallos, stucco de calce, e impermeabilisation. Le metallurgia requireva cognoscentia sur le proprietates de metallos. Nonobstante, le mesopotamianos pare haber habite pauco interesse in colliger information sur le mundo natural pro le mer facto de colliger information e esseva multo plus interessate in studiar le maniera in le qual le deos habeva ordinate le universo. Le biologia de organismos non-human esseva generalmente scripte solmente in le contexto de disciplinas academic principal. Le physiologia animal esseva studiate extensivemente pro le scopo de divination; le anatomia del hepate, que esseva viste como un organo importante in la haruspice, esseva studiate con particular detalio intensive. Anque le comportamento animal esseva studiate pro scopos divinatori. Le majoritate del information sur le education e domestication de animales probabilemente esseva transmittite oralmente sin esser scripte, ma un texto sur le education de cavallos ha supervivite.<ref name="McIntosh2005"/>

==== Medicina mesopotamic ====
Le antique mesopotamianos non faceva distinction inter 'scientia rational' e magia.<ref name="Farber1995">{{Cite book|last=Farber|first=Walter|date=1995 |chapter=Witchcraft, Magic, and Divination in Ancient Mesopotamia|title=Civilizations of the Ancient Near East|volume=3|location=New York City, New York|publisher=Charles Schribner's Sons, MacMillan Library Reference USA, Simon & Schuster MacMillan|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780684192796/page/1891 1891–1908]|isbn=978-0-684-19279-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780684192796/page/1891 |access-date=12 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="Abusch">{{cite book |last=Abusch|first=Tzvi|title=Mesopotamian Witchcraft: Towards a History and Understanding of Babylonian Witchcraft Beliefs and Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Slhv-0ewLHwC|location=Leiden, The Netherlands |publisher=Brill|year=2002|isbn=978-90-04-12387-8|page=56|access-date=7 May 2020|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803051833/https://books.google.com/books?id=Slhv-0ewLHwC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Brown">{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Michael|date=1995|title=Israel's Divine Healer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCzmNKnLqMkC|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|publisher=Zondervan|isbn=978-0-310-20029-1|page=42|access-date=7 May 2020|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803054328/https://books.google.com/books?id=KCzmNKnLqMkC|url-status=live}}</ref> Quando un persona deveniva malade, medicos prescribeva formulas magic a esser recitate assi como tractamentos medicinal.<ref name="Farber1995"/><ref name="Abusch"/><ref name="Brown"/><ref name="McIntosh2005">{{cite book|last1=McIntosh|first1=Jane R.|title=Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives|date=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, California, Denver, Colorado, and Oxford, England|isbn=978-1-57607-966-9|pages=273–276|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&q=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=5 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205162758/https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&q=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia|url-status=live}}</ref> Le prime prescriptiones medicinal appare in sumeriano durante le Tertie Dynastia de Ur (circa 2112 a.C. – circa 2004 a.C.).<ref>{{cite journal |title=Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia |first=R D. |last=Biggs |journal=Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies |volume=19 |number=1 |year=2005 |pages=7–18}}</ref> Tamen, le texto medicinal babylonian le plus extensive es le Manual Diagnostic scribite per le ummânū, o chef scholastic, Esagil-kin-apli de Borsippa,<ref name="Stol-99">{{cite book|last=Heeßel|first=N. P.|date=2004|chapter=Diagnosis, Divination, and Disease: Towards an Understanding of the ''Rationale'' Behind the Babylonian ''Diagonostic Handbook''|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p6rejN-iF0IC&q=Diagnostic+Handbook|title=Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine|editor1-last=Horstmanshoff|editor1-first=H.F.J.|editor2-last=Stol|editor2-first=Marten|editor3-last=Tilburg|editor3-first=Cornelis|series=Studies in Ancient Medicine|volume=27|location=Leiden, The Netherlands|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-13666-3|pages=97–116|access-date=12 May 2018|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803060925/https://books.google.com/books?id=p6rejN-iF0IC&q=Diagnostic+Handbook|url-status=live}}</ref> durante le regno del rege babylonian Adad-apla-iddina (1069–1046 a.C.).<ref>Marten Stol (1993), ''Epilepsy in Babylonia'', p. 55, [[Brill Publishers]], {{ISBN|978-90-72371-63-8}}.</ref> In culturas semitic oriental, le principal autoritate medicinal esseva un typo de exorcista-curator cognoscite como un āšipu.<ref name="Farber1995"/><ref name="Abusch"/><ref name="Brown"/> Generalmente, le profession passava de patre a filio e esseva tenite in reguardo extrememente elevate.<ref name="Farber1995"/> Minus frequentemente usate esseva un altere typo de curator cognoscite como un ''asu'', qui corresponde plus proximemente a un medico moderne e tractava symptomas physic primarimente con remedios popular componite de herbas diverse, productos animal, e minerales, como anque potiones, clysteres, e unguentos o cataplasmas. Iste medicos, qui poteva esser tanto masculin como feminin, anque curava vulneres, stabiliva membros, e faceva chirurgias simplice. Le antique mesopotamianos anque practicava prophylaxia e prendeva mesuras pro prevenir le propagation de morbos.<ref name="McIntosh2005"/>

==== Astronomia e divination celestial ====
[[File:-200 Sternenliste aus Uruk star list anagoria.JPG|thumb|Lista de stellas con information sur distantia, [[Uruk]] (Iraq), 320-150 a.C., le lista proporciona cata constellation, le numero de stellas e le information sur distantia al proxime constellation in ells.]]

In le astronomia babylonian, records del movimentos del stellas, planetas, e le luna es conservate in milles de tabulas de argilla create per scribas. Anque hodie, periodos astronomic identificate per proto-scientistas mesopotamic es ancora largemente usate in calendarios occidental como le anno solar e le mense lunar. Usante iste datos, illes developpava methodos mathematic pro calcular le longitude mutante del lumine diurne durante le anno, previder le apparentias e disparitiones del luna e planetas, e eclipses del sol e luna. Solmente alcun nomines de astronomos es cognoscite, tales como illo de Kidinnu, un astronomo e mathematico chaldean. Le valor de Kidinnu pro le anno solar es ancora in uso in le calendarios de hodie. Le astronomia babylonian esseva 'le prime e multo successose tentativa de dar un description mathematic raffinate de phenomenos astronomic', secundo le historiographo A. Aaboe, 'omne varietates subsequente de astronomia scientific, in le mundo hellenistic, in India, in le Islam, e in le Occidente – si non inde ille subsequente labor in le scientias exacte – depende del astronomia babylonian de manieras decisive e fundamental.'<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity |author=Aaboe, A. |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]] |volume=276 |issue=1257|date=2 May 1974 |pages=21–42|doi=10.1098/rsta.1974.0007 |bibcode=1974RSPTA.276...21A |jstor=74272|s2cid=122508567 }}</ref>

Pro le babylonianos e altere culturas proxime, messages del deos o omenes esseva occultate in tote phenomenos natural que poteva esser decifrate e interpretate per illes qui es competente.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> Ergo, on credeva que le deos poteva parlar per tote objectos terrestre (p.ex., entranias de animales, sonios, nascimentos malformate, o mesmo le color de un can que urina super un persona) e phenomenos celestial.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> De plus, le astrologia babylonian esseva inseparabile del astronomia babylonian.

==== Mathematica ====
Le tabula cuneiforme mesopotamic Plimpton 322, datante del 1.300s a.C., registra un numero de triplettos pythagoric (3,4,5) (5,12,13) ...,<ref>[[Paul Hoffman (science writer)|Paul Hoffman]], ''The man who loved only numbers: the story of Paul Erdös and the search for mathematical truth'', (New York: Hyperion), 1998, p. 187. {{ISBN|978-0-7868-6362-4}}</ref> suggerente que le antique mesopotamianos pote haber cognoscite le [[Theorema de Pythagoras]] plus que un millennio ante Pythagoras.<ref>{{cite book|last=Burkert|first=Walter|author-link=Walter Burkert|date=1 June 1972|title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-53918-1|pages=429, 462|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=29 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/https://books.google.com/books?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Pythagoreanism&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX4Y3W9bfXAhXBeSYKHfBxCG4Q6AEIMTAC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kahn|first=Charles H.|author-link=Charles H. Kahn|date=2001|title=Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&q=Pythagoreanism&pg=PA72|location=Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-87220-575-8|page=32|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=31 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331100347/https://books.google.com/books?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&q=Pythagoreanism&pg=PA72|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Riedweg|first=Christoph|date=2005|orig-year=2002 |title=Pythagoras: His Life, Teachings, and Influence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A8ixyQJA7_MC&q=Pythagoras|location=Ithaca, New York|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-7452-1|page=27|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=28 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228161323/https://books.google.com/books?id=A8ixyQJA7_MC&q=Pythagoras|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Asia antique ==
Le realisationes mathematic de Mesopotamia habeva alcun influentia sur le developpamento del mathematica in India, e il habeva transmissiones confirmate de ideas mathematic inter India e China, le quales esseva bidirectional.<ref name=joseph2011a>{{cite book | last = Joseph | first = George G. | date = 2011 | chapter = The history of mathematics: Alternative perspectives | title = The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics | edition = 3rd | pages = 418–449 | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = New Jersey | isbn = 978-0691135267}}</ref> Tamen, le realisationes mathematic e scientific in India e particularmente in China occurreva in grande parte independentemente<ref name = "sivin1985">{{cite journal | last = Sivin | first = Nathan | author-link = Nathan Sivin | title = Why the Scientific Revolution did not take place in China – or did it? | journal = The Environmentalist | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–50 | date = 1985 | doi = 10.1007/BF02239866 | s2cid = 45700796 | url = https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02239866 | access-date = 8 June 2021 | archive-date = 8 June 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210608185003/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02239866 | url-status = live }}</ref> de illos de Europa e le influentias confirmate que iste duo civilisationes habeva sur le developpamento del scientia in Europa in le epocha premoderne era indirecte, con Mesopotamia e posteriormente le Mundo Islamic actuante como intermediarios.<ref name=joseph2011a/> Le advento del scientia moderne, que se developpava ex le Revolution Scientific, in India e China e le region asian in general, pote esser retraciate al activitates scientific de missionarios jesuita qui habeva interesse in studiar le flora e fauna del region durante le seculos 16 e 17.<ref name=bartholomew2003>{{cite book | last = Bartholomew | first = James R. | date = 2003 | editor1-last = Heilbron | editor1-first = John L. | chapter = Asia | title = The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science | pages = 51–55 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York| isbn = 978-0195112290}}</ref>

=== India ===
[[File:QtubIronPillar.JPG|thumb|right|upright|Le ancian India esseva un precox lider in le campo de [[metallurgia]], como es evidenciate per le [[wrought iron|hastaliero]] [[Iron pillar of Delhi|Columna de Delhi]].]]

==== Astronomia e mathematica indian ====
Le primordial tracias de cognoscentia mathematic in le subcontinente indian appare con le Civilisation del Valle del Indo (circa 4.000 a.C. ~ circa 3.000 a.C.). Le gente de iste civilisation fabricava lateres cuje dimensiones esseva in le proportion de 4:2:1, lo que es favorabile pro le stabilitate de un structura de lateres.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Projects/Pearce/chapter-3/|title=3: Early Indian culture – Indus civilisation|work=st-and.ac.uk}}</ref> Illes essayava etiam standardisar le mensura de longitude a un grado de precision alte. Illes developpava un regula — le regula de Mohenjo-daro — cuje unitate de longitude (approximatemente 1,32 pollices o 3,4 centimetros) esseva dividite in dece partes equal. Lateres fabricate in le ancian Mohenjo-daro frequentemente habeva dimensiones que esseva multiple integral de iste unitate de longitude.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bisht |first=R.S.|year=1982|chapter=Excavations at Banawali: 1974–77|editor=Possehl, Gregory L. |title=Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective|pages=113–124 |publisher=Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.}}</ref>

Le astronomo e mathematico indian Aryabhata (476–550), in su obra Aryabhatiya (499), introduceva le function sinus in trigonometria e le numero 0 [mathematica]. In 628 post Christo, Brahmagupta suggereva que le gravitate esseva un fortia de attraction.<ref>{{Cite book| last=Pickover| first=Clifford| author-link=Clifford A. Pickover| title=Archimedes to Hawking: laws of science and the great minds behind them| publisher=[[Oxford University Press US]]| year=2008| page=105| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQXcpvjcJBUC&pg=PA105| isbn=978-0-19-533611-5| access-date=7 May 2020| archive-date=18 January 2017| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118060420/https://books.google.com/books?id=SQXcpvjcJBUC| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Mainak Kumar Bose, ''Late Classical India'', A. Mukherjee & Co., 1988, p. 277.</ref> Ille explicava anque lucidemente le uso de zero tanto como un cifra separate e como un cifra decimal, juncte con le systema de numeration hindu-arabe ora usate universalmente in le mundo. Traductiones arabe del textos de iste duo astronomos deveniva tosto disponibile in le mundo islamic, introducente lo que devenirea le numeros arabic in le mundo islamic in le seculo IX.<ref name=ifrah>Ifrah, Georges. 1999. ''The Universal History of Numbers : From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer'', Wiley. {{ISBN|978-0-471-37568-5}}.</ref><ref name=oconnor>O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson. 2000. [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html 'Indian Numerals'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929131009/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/%7Ehistory/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html |date=29 September 2007 }}, ''MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive'', School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland.</ref> Durante le seculos 14–16, le schola de astronomia e mathematica de Kerala faceva avantiamentos significante in astronomia e specialmente mathematica, includente campos como trigonometria e analyses. In particular, Madhava de Sangamagrama es considerate le "fundator de analyses mathematic".<ref>George G. Joseph (1991). ''The crest of the peacock''. London.</ref>

In le tractato Tantrasangraha, Nilakantha Somayaji actualisava le modello Aryabhatan pro le planetas interior, Mercurio e Venus, e le equation que ille specificava pro le centro de iste planetas esseva plus accurate que illos in le astronomia europee o islamic usque le tempore de Johannes Kepler in le seculo XVII.<ref name=joseph2011j>{{cite book | last = Joseph | first = George G. | date = 2011 | chapter = A Passage to Infinity: The Kerala Episode | title = The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics | edition = 3rd | pages = 418–449 | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = New Jersey | isbn = 978-0691135267}}</ref>

Le prime mention textual de conceptos astronomic veni del Vedas, le litteratura religiose de India.<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind>{{cite encyclopedia|last =Sarma|first = K.V.| title=Astronomy in India |date = 2008 |encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|editor-last = Selin|editor-first = Helaine|doi= 10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9554|publisher = Springer, Dordrecht|isbn = 978-1-4020-4425-0|pages = 317–321}}</ref> Secundo Sarma (2008): "On trova in le Rigveda speculationes intelligente sur le genesis del universo ab non-existentia, le configuration del universo, le terra spheric que se supporta per se mesme, e le anno de 360 dies dividite in 12 partes equal de 30 dies cata uno con un mense intercalar periodic."<ref name=Sarma-Ast-Ind/> Le prime 12 capitulos del Siddhanta Shiromani, scribite per Bhāskara in le seculo XII, tracta themas como: longitudes medie de planetas; longitudes ver del planetas; le tres problemas de rotation diurne; syzygias; eclipses lunar; eclipses solar; latitudes de planetas; le levar e le poner del sol; le crescente de luna; conjunctiones de planetas inter se; conjunctiones de planetas con le stellas fixe; e le passages del sol e luna. Le 13 capitulos del secunde parte tracta le natura del sphera, assi como calculationes astronomic e trigonometric basate sur illo.

==== Grammatica ====
Alcun del plus prime activitates linguistic pote esser trovate in le India del Era de Ferro (1 millesime a.C.) con le analyse de sanskrito pro le proposito del recitation e interpretation correcte de textos vedic. Le grammatico le plus notabile de sanskrito esseva Pāṇini (circa 520–460 a.C.), cuje grammatica formula presso a 4.000 regulas pro sanskrito. Inherente in su approximation analytic es le conceptos del phonema, del morphema e del radice. Le texto Tolkāppiyam, componite in le prime seculos del era commun<ref name= "weiss2009d" >{{cite book | last = Weiss | first = Richard S. | year = 2009 | chapter = The invasion of utopia: The corruption of Siddha medicine by Ayurveda | title = Recipes for Immortality: Healing, Religion, and Community in South India | pages = 79–106 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York, New York | isbn = 978-0195335231}}</ref>, es un texto comprehensive sur le grammatica tamil, que include sutras sur orthographia, phonologia, etymologia, morphologia, semanticas, prosodia, structura de phrases e le significato del contexto in linguage.

==== Medicina ====
Le resultatos de necropoles neolithic in lo que nunc es Pakistan monstra evidentia de proto-dentisteria inter un cultura de agricultura prime.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Coppa|first1=A.|title=Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry: Flint tips were surprisingly effective for drilling tooth enamel in a prehistoric population |journal=Nature |volume=440 |date=6 April 2006 |doi=10.1038/440755a |pages=755–756 |pmid=16598247 |issue=7085 |bibcode=2006Natur.440..755C |s2cid=6787162|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Le ancian texto Suśrutasamhitā de Suśruta describe procedimentos sur varie formas de chirurgia, includente rhinoplastia, le reparation de lobulos auricular rupte, lithotomia perineal, chirurgia de cataracta, e altere excisiones e altere procedimentos chirurgic.

==== Politica e stato ====
Un ancian tractato indian sur politica, politica economic e strategia militar per Kautilya<ref>{{cite journal | first=I.W. | last=Mabbett | date=1 April 1964| title=The Date of the Arthaśāstra | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume=84 | issue=2 | pages=162–169 | doi=10.2307/597102 | jstor=597102 }}<br />{{cite book | last=Trautmann | first=Thomas R. | author-link=Thomas Trautmann | title={{IAST|Kauṭilya}} and the Arthaśāstra: A Statistical Investigation of the Authorship and Evolution of the Text | year=1971 | publisher=Brill | pages=10 | quote =while in his character as author of an ''arthaśāstra'' he is generally referred to by his ''[[gotra]]'' name, {{IAST|Kauṭilya}}.}}</ref> e Viṣhṇugupta<ref>Mabbett 1964<br />Trautmann 1971:5 "the very last verse of the work...is the unique instance of the personal name {{IAST|Viṣṇugupta}} rather than the ''[[gotra]]'' name {{IAST|Kauṭilya}} in the ''Arthaśāstra''.</ref> es traditionalmente identificate con Chāṇakya (circa 350–283 a.C.). In iste tractato, le comportamentos e relationes del populo, le rege, le stato, le supervisor del governamento, le cortesanos, le inimicos, le invasores, e le corporationes es analysate e documentate. Roger Boesche describe le Arthaśāstra como "un libro de realismo politic, un libro que analysa como le mundo politic opera e non multo sovente indica como illo debera operar, un libro que frequentemente revela a un rege qual calculationes e a vices mesuras brutal ille deberea executar pro preservar le stato e le ben commun."<ref>{{cite book| author-link= Roger Boesche | last=Boesche | first=Roger | title=The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra | year=2002 | publisher=Lexington Books | isbn=978-0-7391-0401-9 | page=17}}</ref>

=== China ===
[[File:Sea island survey.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Le "Levamento del Insula Marin" per Liu Hui.]]

==== Mathematica chinese ====
Ab le prime tempores, le chineses usava un systema decimal positional sur tabellas de calculation pro facer calculos. Pro exprimer le numero 10, un baston solitari se colloca in le secunde cassetta a partir del dextra. Le lingua parlate usa un systema simile al anglese: p.ex. quatro mille duo centos e septe. Nulle symbolo esseva usate pro zero. Al initio del prime seculo a.C., numeros negative e fractiones decimal esseva in uso, e "Le Novem Capitulos sur le Arte Mathematic" includite methodos pro extraher radices de ordine plus alte per le methodo de Horner e resolver equationes linear e per le theorema de Pythagoras. Equationes cubic esseva solvite durante le dynastia Tang e solutiones de equationes de ordine superior a 3 appareva in impression in 1245 p.C. per Ch'in Chiu-shao. Le triangulo de Pascal pro coefficientes binomial esseva describite circa 1100 per Jia Xian.<ref>{{cite book
 |last1=Martzloff
 |first1=Jean-Claude
 |title=A History of Chinese Mathematics
 |year=2006
 |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg
 |isbn=9783540337836
 |page=17
 |language=English, Japanese, Chinese
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ACK1jreKgCoC&q=jia+xian+pascal+triangle
}}
</ref>

Ben que le prime tentativas de axiomatisar le geometria appare in le canone mohista in 330 a.C., Liu Hui developpava methodos algebraic in geometria in le seculo III post Christo e anque calculava pi a 5 figuras significative. In 480, Zu Chongzhi meliorava isto per discoperir le ration <math>\tfrac{355}{113}</math> que remaneva le valor le plus accurate pro 1.200 annos.

==== Observationes astronomic ====
[[File:Su Song Star Map 1.JPG|thumb|left|Un del [[mapa stellari]] de ''Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao'' de [[Su Song]], publicate in 1092, que presenta un projection cilindric simile al [[Mercator projection|projection Mercator]], e le position corrigite del [[stella polar]] gratias al observationes astronomic de [[Shen Kuo]].{{sfnp|Needham|1986a|p=208}}]]

Observationes astronomic ab China constitue le sequentia continue le plus longe ex qualcunque civilisation e include registros de maculas solar (112 registros ab 364 a.C.), supernovas (1054), e eclipses lunar e solar. In le 12e seculo, illes poteva facer predictiones bastante accurate de eclipses, ma iste cognoscentia esseva perdite durante le dynastia Ming, de modo que le jesuita Matteo Ricci ganiava multe favor in 1601 per su predictiones.<ref>Needham p422</ref> In 635 astronomos chinese habeva observate que le caudas de cometas sempre se dirige a partir del sol.

Ab le antiquitate, le chineses usava un systema equatorial pro describer le celos e un carta stellar ab 940 esseva delineate con un projection cylindric (Mercator). Le uso de un sphera armillar es registrate ab le seculo IV a.C. e un sphera montate permanentemente in axes equatorial ab 52 a.C. In 125 post Christo, Zhang Heng usava potentia aquatic pro girar le sphera in tempore real. Isto includeva anellos pro le meridiano e le ecliptica. In 1270, illes habeva incorporate le principios del ''torquetum'' arabe.

In le Imperio Song (960–1279) del China imperial, studiose functionarios chinese exhumava, studiava e catalogava artefactos antique.

==== Inventiones ====
[[File:EastHanSeismograph.JPG|thumb|upright|Un replica moderne del [[seismometro]] del polymath scientista de le dinastia Han [[Zhang Heng]], que data de 132 EC.]]

Pro preparar se melio a calamitates, Zhang Heng inventava un seismometro in 132 post Christo que provideva alertas immediate al autoritates in le capital Luoyang que un tremor de terra habeva occurrite in un loco indicate per un direction cardinal o ordinal specific.<ref>[[Rafe de Crespigny|de Crespigny, Rafe]]. (2007). ''A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)''. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, p. 1050. {{ISBN|90-04-15605-4}}.</ref><ref>Morton, W. Scott and Charlton M. Lewis. (2005). ''China: Its History and Culture''. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., p. 70. {{ISBN|0-07-141279-4}}.</ref> Ben que nulle tremores poteva esser sentite in le capital, quando Zhang diceva al corte que un tremor de terra habeva justemente occurrite in le nord-west, un message veniva tosto postea que un tremor de terra habeva de facto colpite a 400 a 500 km (250 a 310 millias) al nord-west de Luoyang (in lo que nunc es le provincia moderne de Gansu).<ref>Minford & Lau (2002), 307; Balchin (2003), 26–27; Needham (1986a), 627; Needham (1986c), 484; Krebs (2003), 31.</ref> Zhang nominava su apparato le 'instrumento pro mensurar le ventos saisonal e le movimentos del Terra' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), nominate assi proque ille e alteres pensava que tremores de terra esseva le plus probabilemente causate per le enorme compression de aer capturate.<ref name="needham volume 3 626">Needham (1986a), 626.</ref>

Il ha multe contributores notabile al disciplinas, inventiones e practicas chinese antique. Un del excellente exemplos es le chinese medieval Shen Kuo (1031–1095), un genio universal e statista qui esseva le prime a describer le compasso de agulia magnetic pro navigation, discoperiva le concepto del ver nord, meliorava le designo del gnomone astronomic, sphera armillar, tubo de vista, e clepsydra, e describeva le uso de bassinos de calfatage pro reparar barcas. Post observar le processo natural del inundation de limo e le trovata de fossiles marin in le montes Taihang (centenas de millias del Oceano Pacific), Shen Kuo concipeva un theoria de formation del terra, o geomorphologia. Ille adoptava anque un theoria de cambio climatic gradual in regiones super tempore, post observar bambu petrificate trovate sub terra in Yan'an, in le provincia de Shaanxi. Si non pro le scriptura de Shen Kuo,<ref>[[Shen Kuo]] 沈括 (1086, last supplement dated 1091), ''Meng Ch'i Pi Than (夢溪筆談, [[Dream Pool Essays]])'' as cited in {{harvnb|Needham|Robinson|Huang|2004|p=244}}</ref> le obras architectural de Yu Hao esserea pauco cognoscite, assi como le inventator del impression del typo mobile, Bi Sheng (990–1051). Le contemporaneo de Shen, Su Song (1020–1101), era anque un genio universal brillante, un astronomo qui creava un atlas celestial de cartas stellar, scribeva un tractato relationate al botanica, zoologia, mineralogia, e metallurgia, e erigeva un grande turre de horologio astronomic in le citate de Kaifeng in 1088. Pro operar le sphera armillar, su turre de horologio habeva un mechanismo de escappamento e le plus vetule uso cognoscite de un systema de transmission de potentia sin fin.

Le missiones jesuitic in China durante le seculos 16 e 17 "apprendeva a appreciar le realisationes scientific de iste ancian cultura e faceva los cognite in Europa. Per lor correspondentia, le scientistas europee apprendeva primarimente super le scientia e cultura chinese."<ref>Agustín Udías, ''Searching the Heavens and the Earth: The History of Jesuit Observatories''. (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003). p. 53</ref> Le pensamento academic occidental sur le historia del technologia e scientia chinese esseva mobilisate per le travalio de Joseph Needham e le Needham Research Institute. Inter le realisationes technologic de China esseva, secundo le studiose britannico Needham, le globo celestial movite per potentia aquatic (Zhang Heng),<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/726943|title=Joseph Needham's Research on Chinese Machines in the Cross-Cultural History of Science and Technology|first1=Zhang|last1=Baichun|first2=Tian|last2=Miao|date=6 January 2019|journal=Technology and Culture|volume=60|issue=2|pages=616–624|doi=10.1353/tech.2019.0041 |via=Project MUSE}}</ref> bassinos de calfatage, calibres glissante, le bomba de piston con action duple,<ref name="auto"/> le furno pro production de metallo,<ref name="auto1">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/454409a|title=The man who unveiled China|first=Simon|last=Winchester|date=6 July 2008|journal=Nature|volume=454|issue=7203|pages=409–411|via=www.nature.com|doi=10.1038/454409a|pmid=18650901 }}</ref> le seminatorio multicanal, le carretta de mano,<ref name="auto1"/> le ponte suspendite,<ref name="auto1"/> le machina de ventilator,<ref name="auto"/> le pulvere de cannon,<ref name="auto1"/> le mappa de relievo, le papiro pro le toilette,<ref name="auto1"/> le hamo efficace,<ref name="auto"/> juncte con contributiones in logica, astronomia, medicina, e altere campos.

Tamen, factores cultural preveniva que iste realisationes chinese se developpava in "scientia moderne". Secundo Needham, il pote haber essite le structura religiose e philosophic de intellectual chinese que les rendeva incapace de acceptar le ideas del leges de natura:

{{Citation|Non es que il non habeva un ordine in le natura pro le chineses, ma plus tosto que illo non esseva un ordine prescribite per un rationabile entitate personal, e assi il non habeva un conviction que entitates personal rationabile poterea elaborar in lor linguas terren le minus perfecte le codice divin de leges que ille habeva decretate previemente. De facto, le taoistas haberea repellite un tal idea como troppo naive pro le subtilitate e complexitate del universo como illes lo intueva.}}

== Antiquitate classic ==
Le contributiones del ancian egyptios e mesopotamianos in le dominios de astronomia, mathematica, e medicina habeva entrate e formate le philosophia natural grec de antiquitate classic, ubi tentativas formal esseva facite pro provider explicationes de eventos in le mundo physic basate sur causas natural.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/><ref name="Grant2007a"/> Anque investigationes esseva dirigite verso objectivos practic, tales como establir un calendario fidibile o determinar como curar differente maladias. Le populos ancian que esseva considerate le prime scientistas pote haber vidite se como philosophos natural, como practicantes de un profession experte (per exemplo, medicos), o como sequitores de un tradition religiose (per exemplo, sanatores de templo).

=== Presocraticos ===
Le prime philosophos grec, cognoscite como le pre-socraticos,<ref>{{harvnb|Sambursky|1974|pp=3, 37}} called the pre-Socratics the transition from ''[[Mythology|mythos]]'' to ''[[logos]]''</ref> offereva responsas rival al question presente in le mythos de lor proximos: "Como le cosmos ordinate in le qual nos vive veniva a esser?"<ref>[[F.M. Cornford]], ''Principium Sapientiae: The Origins of Greek Philosophical Thought'', (Gloucester, Massachusetts, Peter Smith, 1971), p. 159.</ref> Le philosopho pre-socratic Thales (640–546 a.C) de Miletus, identificate per autores ulterior como Aristotele como le prime del philosophos ionic,<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> postulava explanationes non-supernatural pro phenomenos natural. Per exemplo, que le terra flotta super aqua e que le tremores de terra es causate per le agitation del aqua sur le qual le terra flotta, e non per le deo Poseidon.<ref>Arieti, James A. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L0w6kvdKJ8QC&dq=thales+earthquakes&pg=PA44 Philosophy in the ancient world: an introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404032051/https://books.google.com/books?id=L0w6kvdKJ8QC&dq=thales+earthquakes&pg=PA44 |date=4 April 2023 }}'', p. 45. Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. 386 pp. {{ISBN|978-0-7425-3329-5}}.</ref> Le discipulo de Thales, Pythagoras de Samos, fundava le schola pythagoric, que investigava mathematica pro su proprie interesse, e esseva le prime a postular que le Terra es spheric in forma.<ref name="dicks">{{cite book |last=Dicks |first=D.R. |title=Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle |pages=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/72 72–198] |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-8014-0561-7 |publisher=Cornell University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/72 }}</ref> Leucippus (seculo V a.C.) introduceva le atomismo, le theoria que tote materia es facite de unitates indivisibile e imperibile, cognoscite como atomos. Isto esseva amplificate multo per su discipulo Democritus e postea per Epicuro.

=== Philosophia natural ===
[[File:Plato's Academy mosaic from Pompeii.jpg|thumb|[[Academia de Plato]]. Mosaico del seculo I de [[Pompeii]].]]

Plato e Aristotele produceva le prime discussiones systematic de philosophia natural, le quales contribueva multo a formar investigationes ulterior de natura. Lor developpamento de rationamento deductive esseva de particular importantia e utilitate pro le inquesta scientific futur. Platon fundava le Academia Platonic in 387 a.C., cuje motto esseva "Nullo ignorante de geometria a entrar" e produceva multe philosophos notabile. Le discipulo de Platon, Aristotele, introduceva le empirismo e le idea que veritates universal pote esser attingite per observation e induction, ponente assi le bases del methodo scientific.<ref>{{cite book |first=De Lacy |last=O'Leary |author-link=De Lacy O'Leary |year=1949 |title=How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs |url=https://archive.org/details/howgreeksciencep0000olea |url-access=registration |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul  |isbn=978-0-7100-1903-5}}</ref> Aristotele anque produceva multe scripturas biologic que esseva empiric in natura, concentrante se sur causation biologic e le diversitate de vita. Ille faceva innumerabile observationes del natura, specialmente le habitos e attributos de plantas e animales in Lesbos, classificava plus que 540 species animal, e dissecava al minus 50.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Armand Marie Leroi |last=Leroi |first=Armand Marie |title=The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science |title-link=Aristotle's Lagoon |publisher=Bloomsbury |date=2015 |isbn=978-1-4088-3622-4 |page=7–}}</ref> Le scripturas de Aristotele influentiava profundemente le subsequente erudition islamic e europee, ben que illos eventualmente esseva superate per le Revolution Scientific..<ref>{{cite SEP|url-id=aristotle-influence|title=Aristotle's Influence|date=2018|edition=Spring 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Barnes |title=Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction |date=1982 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=86 |isbn=978-0-19-285408-7}}</ref>

Aristotele contribueva anque a theorias sur le elementos e le cosmo. Ille credeva que le corpores celeste (como le planetas e le Sol) habeva alique cognoscite como "motores immobile" que impelleva le corpores celeste in motion. Aristotele essayava explicar toto per mathematica e physica, ma a vices explicava cosas como le motion de corpores celeste per un potentia superior tal como Deo. Aristotele non habeva le progressos technologic que haberea explicate le motion de corpores celeste.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aristotle |title="De Caelo" [On the Heavens] |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |date=7 January 2009 |location=Translated by J. L. Stocks |pages=279 a17-30}}</ref> In plus, Aristotele habeva multe opiniones sur le elementos. Ille credeva que toto era derivate del elementos terra, aqua, aere, foco, e finalmente le Ethere. Le Ethere esseva un elemento celestial e assi formava le substantia del corpores celeste.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frede |first=Dorothea |date=1976 |title=On the Elements: Aristotle's Early Cosmology |url=https://doi.org/10.1353/hph.2008.0115 |journal=Journal of the History of Philosophy |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=227–229 |doi=10.1353/hph.2008.0115 |s2cid=144547689 |via=Project MUSE}}</ref> Le elementos terra, aqua, aere, e foco esseva derivatos de un combination de duo del characteristicas de calide, humide, frigide, e sec, e toto habeva su loco e motion inevitabile. Le motion de iste elementos comencia con terra essente le proxime a "le Terra," postea aqua, aere, foco, e finalmente Ethere. In addition al composition de omne cosas, Aristotele elaborava theorias sur proque cosas non retornava a lor motion natural. Ille comprendeva que aqua se trova supra terra, aere supra aqua, e foco supra aere in lor stato natural. Ille explicava que ben que omne elementos debe retornar a lor stato natural, le corpore human e altere formas de vita ha un restriction sur le elementos – non permittente al elementos retornar a lor stato natural.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Monte |date=2004 |title=Review of The Order of Nature in Aristotle's Physics: Place and the Elements, Helen S. Lang |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/432288 |journal=Isis |volume=95 |issue=4 |pages=687–688 |doi=10.1086/432288 |jstor=10.1086/432288 |issn=0021-1753 |access-date=4 December 2022 |archive-date=4 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204052419/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/432288 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Le importante hereditage de iste periodo includeva progressos substantial in cognoscentia factual, specialmente in anatomia, zoologia, botanica, mineralogia, geographia, mathematica, e astronomia; un conscientia del importantia de certe problemas scientific, particularmente illos relationate con le problema del mutation e su causas; e un recognition del importantia methodologic de applicar mathematica a phenomenos natural e de facer recercas empiric.<ref>[[G.E.R. Lloyd]], ''Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle'', (New York: W.W. Norton, 1970), pp. 144–146.</ref> In le epocha hellenistic, studiosos frequentemente applicava le principios developpate in le precedente pensamento grec: le application de mathematica e le recerca empiric deliberate, in lor investigationes scientific.<ref>[[G. E. R. Lloyd|Lloyd, G. E. R.]]  ''Greek Science after Aristotle''. New York: W.W. Norton & Co, 1973.  {{ISBN|0-393-00780-4}}, p. 177.</ref> Assi, lineas de influentia clar e ininterrupte conduce del philosophos grec e hellenistic, al philosophos e scientistas musulman medieval, al Renascentia e al Seculo de Illumination europee, e al scientias secular del die moderne. Ni le ration, ni le inquisition comenciava con le antique grecos, ma le methodo socratic e le idea de Formas forniva grande progressos in geometria, logica, e le scientias natural. Secundo Benjamin Farrington, professor emerite de Studios Classic al Universitate de Swansea:

{{Citation|Homines pesava durante millennios ante que Archimedes elaborava le leges de equilibrio; illes debe haber possedite cognoscentia practic e intuitive del principios involvite. Lo que Archimedes faceva, era distillar le implicationes theoretic de iste cognoscentia practic e presentar le corpore de cognoscentia resultante como un systema logicamente coherente.}}

e de nove:

{{Citation|Con stupefaction, nos nos trova mesme sur le limine del scientia moderne. Non debe esser supponite que, per alcun stratagema de traduction, le excerptos ha essite dotate de un aere de modernitate. Ben, al contrario. Le vocabulario de iste scripturas e lor stilo es le fonte ex le qual nostre proprie vocabulario e stilo ha essite derivate.<ref>''Greek Science'', many editions, such as the paperback by Penguin Books. Copyrights in 1944, 1949, 1953, 1961, 1963. The first quote above comes from Part 1, Chapter 1; the second, from Part 2, Chapter 4.</ref>}}

=== Astronomia grec ===
[[File:Antikythera mechanism.svg|thumb|upright|right|Schema del [[mecanismo de Antikythera]] (150-100 a.C.).]]
Le astronomo Aristarchus de Samos esseva le prime persona cognoscite qui proponeva un modello heliocentric del Systema Solar, durante que le geographo Eratosthenes calculava accuratemente le circumferentia del Terra. Hipparchus (circa 190 – circa 120 a.C.) produceva le prime catalogo systematic de stellas. Le nivello de attingimento in astronomia e ingenieria hellenistic es impressionantemente monstrate per le mechanismo de Antikythera (150–100 a.C.), un computator analogic pro calcular le position de planetas. Artefactos technologic de similar complexitate non reappareva usque le seculo 14, quando horologios astronomic mechanic appareva in Europa.<ref name=insearchoflosttime>{{cite journal | last1=Marchant | first1=Jo | year=2006 | title=In search of lost time | journal=Nature | volume=444 | issue=7119| pages=534–538 | doi=10.1038/444534a | pmid=17136067 | bibcode=2006Natur.444..534M | doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Medicina hellenistic ===
Durante le epocha de Hippocrate, non existeva un definite structura de societate pro le medicina.<ref name="ReferenceA">Kleisiaris CF, Sfakianakis C, Papathanasiou IV. Health care practices in ancient Greece: The Hippocratic ideal. J Med Ethics Hist Med. 2014 Mar 15;7:6. PMID 25512827; PMCID: PMC4263393.</ref> A ille tempore, le societate non esseva organisate e instructe, e le gente confideva ancora sur rationamento religiose pur pro explicar maladias.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Hippocrate introduceva le prime systema de medicina basate sur scientia e protocollos clinic.<ref name="Kleisiaris 6">{{Cite journal |last1=Kleisiaris |first1=Christos F. |last2=Sfakianakis |first2=Chrisanthos |last3=Papathanasiou |first3=Ioanna V. |date=2014-03-15 |title=Health care practices in ancient Greece: The Hippocratic ideal |journal=Journal of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine |volume=7 |pages=6 |issn=2008-0387 |pmc=4263393 |pmid=25512827}}</ref> Le theorias de Hippocrate sur physic e medicina contribueva a establir un structura medic organisate pro le societate.<ref name="Kleisiaris 6"/> In medicina, Hippocrate (circa 460 a.C. – circa 370 a.C.) e su sequitores esseva le prime a describer multe maladias e conditiones medic e a elaborar le Juramento Hippocratic pro medicos, que ancora es pertinente e in uso hodie. Le ideas de Hippocrate es exprimite in Le Corpore Hippocratic. Le collection nota descriptiones de philosophias medic e como maladias e decisiones de vita se reflecte sur le corpore physic.<ref name="Kleisiaris 6"/> Hippocrate influentiava un relation professional occidental inter medico e patiente.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=DeHart |first=Scott M. |title=Hippocratic Medicine and the Greek Body Image |journal=Perspectives on Science |year=1999 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=349–382 |doi=10.1162/posc.1999.7.3.349 |s2cid=57571190 |issn=1063-6145|doi-access=free }}</ref> Hippocrate es cognoscite etiam como "le Patre del Medicina".<ref name="Kleisiaris 6"/> Herophilos (335–280 a.C.) esseva le prime a basar su conclusiones sur dissection del corpore human e a describer le systema nervose. Galeno (129 – circa 200 p.C.) realisava multe operationes audace — incluse chirurgias de cerebro e oculo — que non esseva tentate de novo pro quasi duo millennios.

=== Mathematica grec ===
[[File:Oxyrhynchus papyrus with Euclid's Elements.jpg|thumb|Un del fragmentos plus vetule conservate del ''Elementos'' de Euclides, trovate a [[Oxyrhynchus]] e datate circa 100 EC.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/papyrus/papyrus.html |title=One of the Oldest Extant Diagrams from Euclid |author=Casselman, Bill |author-link=Bill Casselman (mathematician) |publisher=University of British Columbia |access-date=26 September 2008 |url-status=live |archive-date=4 June 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120604095737/http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/papyrus/papyrus.html}}</ref>]]
[[File:Archimedes pi.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5<!--fmt low-aspect image-->|Archimedes usava le [[methodo de exhaustion]] pro approximar le valor de [[pi|π]].]]
In le Egypto hellenistic, le mathematico Euclides establiva le bases del rigor mathematic e introduceva le conceptos de definition, axioma, theorema, e demonstration que ancora es in uso hodie in su Elementos, considerate le libro de texto le plus influential que jam ha essite scripte.<ref name="Boyer Influence of the Elements">{{cite book |last=Boyer |author-link=Carl Benjamin Boyer |title=A History of Mathematics |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye |chapter-url-access=registration |year=1991|chapter=Euclid of Alexandria|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye/page/119 119]|publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0471543978 |quote=Le ''Elementos'' de Euclides non solmente esseva le prime major obra mathematic grec que perveniva a nos, ma anque le manual le plus influential de omne tempores. [...] Le prime versiones impresse del ''Elementos'' appariva in Venetia in 1482, un del prime libros mathematic que esseva componite in typo; on ha estimate que desde alora al minus mil editiones ha essite publicate. Forsan nulle libro, excepte le Biblia, pote vantiar se de tantos editiones, e certemente nulle obra mathematic ha exercite un influentia comparabile con ille del ''Elementos'' de Euclides.}}</ref> Archimedes, considerate un del mathematicos le plus grande de omne tempore,<ref>{{cite book |last=Calinger |first=Ronald |title=A Contextual History of Mathematics |year=1999 |publisher=Prentice-Hall |isbn=978-0-02-318285-3 |page=150 |quote=Brevemente post Euclides, le compilator del manual definitive, veniva Archimedes de Syracusa (circa 287–212 a.C.), le mathematiciano le plus original e profunde del antiquitate.}}</ref> es credite con le uso del methodo de exhaustion pro calcular le area sub le arco de un parabola con le summation de un serie infinite, e dava un approximation remarcabilemente accurate de pi.<ref>{{cite web |title=A history of calculus |author1=O'Connor, J.J. |author2=Robertson, E.F. |publisher=[[University of St Andrews]] |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/The_rise_of_calculus.html |date=February 1996 |access-date=7 August 2007 |archive-date=15 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715191704/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/The_rise_of_calculus.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Ille es etiam cognoscite in physica pro establir le bases del hydrostatica, statica, e le explication del principio del levator.

=== Altere developpamentos ===
Theophrastus scribeva alcun del prime descriptiones de plantas e animales, establiente le prime taxonomia e examinante minerales in terminos de lor proprietates, tal como duressa. Plinio le Senior produceva un del plus grandes encyclopedias del mundo natural in 77 p.C. e esseva un successor de Theophrastus. Per exemplo, ille describe accuratemente le forma octahedric del diamante e notava que le pulvere de diamante es usate per incisores pro taliar e polir altere gemmas a causa de su grande duressa. Su recognoscimento del importantia del forma crystalloide es un antecessor del crystallographia moderne, durante que notas sur altere minerales presagia mineralogia. Ille recognosce que altere minerales ha formas crystalloides characteristic, ma in un exemplo, confunde le habito crystalloide con le travalio de lapidarios. Plinio esseva le prime a monstrar que le ambra esseva un resina de pinos, a causa de insectos capturate in illos.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0137:book=37#note92|title=Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, BOOK XXXVII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PRECIOUS STONES.|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
 |last1=King
 |first1=Rachel
 |title=Amber: From Antiquity to Eternity
 |year=2022
 |publisher=Reaktion Books
 |isbn=9781789145922
 |page=107
 |date=29 August 2022
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qEt7EAAAQBAJ&dq=pliny+the+elder+amber+gnats&pg=PA107}}</ref>

Le developpamento de archeologia ha su radices in le historia e con illes qui esseva interessate in le passato, tal como reges e reginas qui voleva monstrar le glorias passate de lor nationes respective. Le historiographo grec del seculo V a.C., Herodoto, esseva le prime scholastico a studiar systematicamente le passato e forsan le prime a examinar artefactos.

=== Erudition grec sub le dominio roman ===
Durante le dominio de Roma, historiographos famose como [[Polybio]], Livio e Plutarcho documentava le ascension del Republica Roman, e le organisation e historias de altere nationes, durante que homines de stato como Julio Cesare, Ciceron, e alteres offereva exemplos del politica del republica e le imperio e guerras roman. Le studio del politica durante iste epocha se dirigeva verso comprender le historia, comprender le methodos de governar, e describer le functionamento de governamentos.

Le conquesta roman de Grecia non diminueva le apprendimento e cultura in le provincias grec.<ref name= "lindberg2007g">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = Roman and early medieval science | title = The Beginnings of Western Science| pages = 132–162 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> Al contrario, le appreciation del successos grec in litteratura, philosophia, politica, e le artes per le classe superior roman coincideva con le prosperitate crescente del Imperio Roman. Colonias grec existeva in Italia durante seculos, e le capacitate de leger e parlar greco non era rarissime in citates italian como Roma.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> De plus, le installation de scholasticos grec in Roma, voluntarimente o como sclavos, dava al romanos accesso a professores de litteratura e philosophia grec. Vice versa, juvene scholasticos roman studiava in Grecia e, al retornar a Roma, poteva communicar le successos grec a lor direction latin.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> E nonobstante le traduction de alcun textos grec in latino, scholasticos roman qui aspirava al nivello plus elevate lo faceva con le lingua grec. Le homine de stato e philosopho roman Ciceron (106–43 a.C.) esseva un excellente exemplo. Ille habeva studiate sub professores grec in Roma e postea in Athenas e Rhodos. Ille dominava grande partes de philosophia grec, scribeva tractatos latin sur plure themas, e mesmo scribeva commentarios grec de Timaeus de Platon, ben como un translation latin, que non ha supervivite.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/>

Al initio, le appoio al stipendios in cognoscentia grec esseva quasi completemente financiate per le classe superior roman.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Il habeva omne sortes de arrangiamentos, que variava de un scholastico talentose attachate a un familia opulente a sclavos grec educate.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> In cambio, scholasticos qui succedeva al nivello plus elevate habeva un obligation de consiliar o dar compania intellectual a lor benefactores roman, o mesmo prender cura de lor bibliothecas. Le minus fortun o competente instrueva su filios o faceva tascas servil.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Le nivello de detalio e sophistication del cognoscentia grec esseva adjustate al interesses de lor patronos roman. Illo significava popularisar le cognoscentia grec presentante informationes que esseva de valor practic como medicina o logica (pro cortes e politica), ma excludente detalios subtil de metaphysica e epistemologia grec. Ultra le basic, le romanos non appreciava le philosophia natural e lo considerava un divertimento pro le tempore de otio.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/>

Commentarios e encyclopedias esseva le medios per le quales le cognoscentia grec esseva popularisate pro le audientia roman.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Le scholastico grec Posidonius (circa 135–circa 51 a.C.), un nativo de Syria, scribeva prolificamente super historia, geographia, philosophia moral, e philosophia natural. Ille influentiava scriptores latin como Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 a.C.), qui scribeva le encyclopedia Novem Libros de Disciplinas, que tractava novem artes: grammatica, rhetorica, logica, arithmetica, geometria, astronomia, theoria musical, medicina, e architectura.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Le Disciplinas deveniva un modello pro subsequente encyclopedias roman, e le nove artes liberal de Varro esseva considerate un education idonee pro un homine roman. Le prime septe del novem artes de Varro definirea postea le septe artes liberal del scholas medieval.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Le culmine del movimento de popularisation esseva le scholastico roman Plinio le Senior (23/24–79 p.C.), un nativo del nord de Italia, qui scribeva plure libros super le historia de Roma e grammatica. Su obra le plus famose esseva su voluminose Historia Natural.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/>

Post le morte del imperator roman Marco Aurelio in 180 p.C., le conditiones favorabile pro stipendios e apprendimento in le Imperio Roman esseva disturbate per disturbantias politic, guerras civil, decadentia urban, e le imminente crise economic.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Circa 250 p.C., barbaros comenciava a attaccar e invader le frontiera roman. Iste eventos combinate resultava in un decremento general del conditiones politic e economic. Le standard de vita del classe superior roman esseva severmente affectate e lor perdita de otio diminueva le scopos scholar.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> De plus, durante le seculos III e IV p.C., le Imperio Roman esseva administrativemente dividite in duo medietates: Grec Oriental e Latin Occidental. Iste divisiones administrative debilitava le contacto intellectual inter le duo regiones.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Finalmente, ambe medietates prendeva lor proprie camminos, con le Grec Oriental deveniente le Imperio Byzantin.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Le christianismo se expandeva anque durante iste tempore e presto deveniva un mecenas major de education in le Latin Occidental. Initialmente, le ecclesia christian adoptava alcun del instrumentos de rationamento de philosophia grec in le seculos II e III p.C. pro defender su fide contra adversarios sophisticate.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Nonobstante, le philosophia grec recipeva un reception mixte ab le leaders e adherentes del fide christian.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Alcunos como Tertullian (circa 155–circa 230 p.C.) esseva vehementemente opponite al philosophia, condemnante lo como heretic. Alteres como Augustino de Hippo (354–430 p.C.) esseva ambivalente e defendeva le philosophia e scientia grec como le melior manieras de comprender le mundo natural e, pro tanto, le tractava como un domestica (o servitor) del religion.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Le education in le Occidente comenciava su declino gradual, con le resto del Imperio Roman Occidental, a causa de invasiones per tribos germanic, disturbantias civil, e collapso economic. Le contacto con le tradition classic esseva perdite in regiones specific como Britannia Roman e Gallia del nord, ma continuava a exister in Roma, le nord de Italia, Gallia del sud, Hispania, e Africa del Nord.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/>

== Medievo ==

=== Imperio Byzantin ===
[[File:ViennaDioscoridesFolio3v7Physicians.jpg|thumb|upright|right|The frontispiece of the [[Vienna Dioscurides]], which shows a set of seven famous physicians.]]

==== Preservation del hereditage grec ====
Le cadita del Imperio Roman Occidental conduceva a un deterioration del tradition classic in le parte occidental (o Occidente Latin) de Europa in le annos 400. Al contrario, le Imperio Roman Oriental o Byzantin resisteva le attaccos barbaric e preservava e meliorava le cognoscentia.<ref>Lindberg, David. (1992) ''The Beginnings of Western Science''. University of Chicago Press. p. 363.</ref>

Durante que le Imperio Byzantin reteneva ancora centros de apprendimento como Constantinopole, Alexandria e Antiochia, le cognoscentia de Europa Occidental esseva concentrate in monasterios usque le developpamento de universitates medieval in le annos 1100. Le programma de scholas monastic includeva le studio de pauc textos antique disponibile e de nove obras sur subjectos practic como medicina<ref>Linda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons", ''Isis'', 70 (1979): 250–268; reprinted in Michael H. Shank, ''The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages'', Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000, pp. 163–181. {{ISBN|978-0-226-74951-8}}.</ref> e chronometration.<ref>Faith Wallis, ''Bede: The Reckoning of Time'', Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Pr., 2004, pp. xviii–xxxiv. {{ISBN|978-0-85323-693-1}}.</ref>

In le septime seculo in le Imperio Byzantin, Isidore de Miletus compilava le obras mathematic de Archimedes in le Palimpsesto de Archimedes, ubi omne contributiones mathematic de Archimedes esseva colligite e studiate.

John Philoponus, un altere scholastico byzantin, esseva le prime a interrogar le doctrina de physica de Aristotele, introducente le theoria de impeto.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Philoponus, John|editor=Craig, Edward|year=1998|title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volume 7, Nihilism-Quantum mechanics|pages=371–377, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0zPyhAxhDz8C&pg=PA373 373]|isbn=978-0-415-18712-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Lindberg, David C. |year=2007|title=The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450|edition=2nd|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|pages=307–308|isbn=978-0-226-48205-7}} Link to [https://books.google.com/books?id=dPUBAkIm2lUC&pg=PA307 p. 307] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803040759/https://books.google.com/books?id=dPUBAkIm2lUC&pg=PA307 |date=3 August 2020 }} from Google's copy of 2008 reprint.</ref> Le theoria de impeto esseva un theoria auxiliar o secundari de dynamicas aristotelian, proponite initialmente pro explicar le motion projectate contra le gravitate. Illo es le antecessor intellectual de conceptos como inertia, impulso e acceleration in le mechanic classic.<ref>{{cite book | last = Duhem | first = Pierre | contribution = Physics, History of | year = 1913 | title = The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, and History of the Catholic Church | editor-first = Charles G. | editor-last = Herbermann | editor-first2 = Edward A. | editor-last2 = Pace | editor-first3 = Condé B. | editor-last3 = Pallen | editor-first4 = John J. | editor-last4 = Wynne | editor-first5 = Thomas J. | editor-last5 = Shahan | volume = 12 | page = 51 | place = New York | publisher = Encyclopedia Press | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XSQUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA51 | access-date = 19 April 2018 | archive-date = 3 January 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140103080018/http://books.google.com/books?id=XSQUAAAAYAAJ | url-status = live }}</ref> Le obras de John Philoponus inspirava Galileo Galilei dece seculos plus tarde.<ref name=Lindberg1992p162>Lindberg, David. (1992) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dPUBAkIm2lUC&pg=PA162 The Beginnings of Western Science]''. University of Chicago Press. p. 162.</ref><ref>{{Cite book| chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/| title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy| chapter=John Philoponus| publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University| year=2018| access-date=11 April 2018| archive-date=22 April 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422010906/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/| url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Collapso ====
Durante le Cadita de Constantinopole in 1453, un numero de scholasticos grec fugiva al Italia del Nord, ubi illes alimentava le periodo posteriormente communmente cognoscite como le "Renascentia" durante que illes apportava con se multe cognoscentia classic includente un comprension de botanica, medicina e zoologia. Byzantio anque offereva al Occidente importante contributiones: le criticismo de John Philoponus del physica aristotelian e le obras de Dioscorides.<ref>Lindberg, David. (1992). ''The Beginnings of Western Science''. University of Chicago Press. p. 162.</ref>

=== Mundo islamic ===
[[File:Islamic MedText c1500.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Manuscript del seculo XV de ''[[Canon de Medicina]]'' de [[Avicenna]].]]

Isto esseva le periodo (seculos 8-14 p.C.) del Epocha de Auro Islamic ubi le commercio prosperava, e nove ideas e technologias emergeva como le importation del arte de facer papiro ab China, que rendeva le reproduction de manuscriptos economic.

==== Traductiones e hellenisation ====
Le transmission oriental del hereditage grec a Asia Occidental esseva un processo lente e gradual que durava plus de mille annos, comenciante con le conquestas asian de Alexandro le Grande in 335 a.C. usque al fundation del Islam in le seculo 7 p.C.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> Le nascentia e expansion del islam durante le seculo 7 esseva sequite rapidemente per su hellenisation. Le cognoscentia del conceptiones grec del mundo esseva preservate e absorbite in le theologia, le derecto, le cultura e le commercio islamic, le quales esseva adjuvate per le translationes de textos grec traditional e alicun fontes intermediari syriac in arabic durante le seculos 8–9.

==== Education e scopos scholar ====
[[File:Cour mosquee Suleymaniye Istanbul.jpg|thumb|[[Moschea Süleymaniye]].]]
Madrasas esseva centros de multe differente studios religiose e scientific e esseva le culmination de differente institutiones tal como moscheas basate sur studios religiose, allogios pro visitatores foras de le citate, e finalmente institutiones educative concentrate sur le scientias natural.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Moosa|first=Ebrahim|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ei9ZBwAAQBAJ&dq=Madrasa+history&pg=PP1|title=What Is a Madrasa?|date=2015-04-06|publisher=UNC Press Books|isbn=978-1-4696-2014-5|access-date=25 November 2021|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730040037/https://books.google.com/books?id=ei9ZBwAAQBAJ&dq=Madrasa+history&pg=PP1|url-status=live}}</ref> A differentia de universitates occidental, studentes in un madrasa apprenderea de un professor specific, qui concederea un certificato al completion de lor studios nominato un Ijazah. Un Ijazah differe de un diploma universitari occidental in multe manieras, inclusive que illo es emittite per un sol persona in loco de un institution, e alique que illo non es un diploma individual que attesta un cognoscimento adequate sur subjectos extensive, ma plus tosto un licentia pro instruer e transmitter un conjuncto de textos specific.<ref name="barker2017">{{Cite journal|last=Barker|first=Peter|date=2017-12-15|title=The Social Structure of Islamicate Science|url=https://scholarworks.iu.edu/iupjournals/index.php/jwp/article/view/1259|journal=Journal of World Philosophies|volume=2|issue=2|issn=2474-1795|access-date=24 November 2021|archive-date=24 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124005530/https://scholarworks.iu.edu/iupjournals/index.php/jwp/article/view/1259|url-status=live}}</ref> Feminas anque esseva permittite a participar in madrasas, tanto como studentes como professores, un cosa non vidite in le education superior occidental usque le seculo XIX.<ref name="barker2017" /> Madrasas esseva plus que simplemente centros academic. Le Moschea Suleymaniye, pro exemplo, esseva un del madrasas le plus ancian e ben cognoscite, que esseva construite per Soliman le Magnificente in le seculo XVI.<ref name="architecturecourses2021">{{Cite web|title=Süleymaniye Mosque, Turkey|url=https://www.architecturecourses.org/s%C3%BCleymaniye-mosque-turkey|access-date=2021-11-24|website=www.architecturecourses.org|archive-date=24 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124005536/https://www.architecturecourses.org/s%C3%BCleymaniye-mosque-turkey|url-status=live|accessdate=2024-01-17|archivedate=2021-11-24|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124005536/https://www.architecturecourses.org/s%C3%BCleymaniye-mosque-turkey}}</ref> Le Moschea Suleymaniye habeva un hospital e collegio medical, un cocina, e un schola pro infantes, e anque functionava como un casa temporanee pro viagiatores.<ref name="architecturecourses2021" />

Le education superior in un madrasa (o collegio) esseva concentrate sur le derecto islamic e le scientia religiose, e le studentes debeva dedicar se a auto-studio pro omne altere materias.<ref name="lindberg2007h" /> E nonobstante le occasional reaction theologic, multe scholares islamic de scientia poteva realisar lor travalio in centros urban relativemente tolerante (p.ex. Bagdad e Cairo) e esseva protegite per patronos potente.<ref name="lindberg2007h" /> Illes poteva anque viagiar liberemente e excambiar ideas, proque il habeva nulle barrieras politic intra le stato islamic unificate.<ref name="lindberg2007h" /> Le scientia islamic durante iste epocha esseva principalmente concentrate sur le correction, extension, articulation, e application de ideas grec a nove problemas.<ref name="lindberg2007h" />

==== Avantiamentos in mathematica ====
Le major parte del complimentos per scholares islamic durante iste periodo esseva in mathematica.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> Le mathematica arabe esseva un descendente directe del mathematica grec e indian.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> Per exemplo, lo que nunc es cognoscite como numeros arabic proveniva originalmente de India, ma mathematicos musulman faceva multe raffinamentos clave al systema de numeros, como le introduction del notation de puncto decimal. Mathematicos como Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (c. 780–850) dava su nomine al concepto de algorithmo, durante que le termino algebra se deriva de al-jabr, le initio del titulo de un de su publicationes.<ref>[[Gerald J. Toomer|Toomer, Gerald]] (1990). "Al-Khwārizmī, Abu Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Mūsā". In Gillispie, Charles Coulston. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 7. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. {{ISBN|978-0-684-16962-0}}.</ref> Le trigonometria islamic continuava ab le opera de le Almagest de Ptolemeo e le Siddhanta indian, del quales illes adderea functiones trigonometric, compilava tabulas, e applicava le trigonometria a spheras e planos. Multe de lor ingenieros, fabricantes de instrumentos, e agrimensores contribueva con libros de mathematica applicate. Es in astronomia ubi le mathematicos islamic faceva lor plus grande contributiones. Al-Battani (c. 858–929) meliorava le mensuras de Hipparchus, preservate in le translation del Almagest de Ptolemeo. Al-Battani anque meliorava le precision del mensura del precession del axe del Terra. Correctiones esseva facite al modello geocentric de Ptolemeo per al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rosen |first=Edward |year=1985 |title=The Dissolution of the Solid Celestial Spheres|journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=19–21 |doi=10.2307/2709773|jstor=2709773 }}</ref> Averroes e le astronomos de Maragha tal como Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi e Ibn al-Shatir.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rabin|first=Sheila|url=http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanford/entries/copernicus/index.html|title=Nicolaus Copernicus|journal=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|year=2004|access-date=24 June 2012|archive-date=15 July 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120715113006/http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanford/entries/copernicus/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Saliba |first=George |author-link=George Saliba |year=1994 |title=A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam |publisher=[[New York University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8147-8023-7 |pages=254, 256–257 }}</ref>

Scholares con habilitates geometric faceva importante meliorationes al textos classic anterior sur luce e vision de Euclide, Aristotele e Ptolemeo.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> Le prime tractatos arabe que ha supervivite esseva scribite in le seculo IX per Abū Ishāq al-Kindī, Qustā ibn Lūqā e (in forma fragmentari) Ahmad ibn Isā. Plus tarde, in le seculo XI, Ibn al-Haytham (cognoscite como Alhazen in le Occidente), un mathematico e astronomo, synthetisava un nove theoria del vision basate super le operationes de su predecessores.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> Su nove theoria includeva un systema complete de optica geometric, que esseva detaliatemente presentate in su Libro del Optica.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/><ref>[https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=hZvL5eYAAAAJ&hl Sameen Ahmed Khan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305131051/http://scholar.google.com/citations?user=hZvL5eYAAAAJ&hl |date=5 March 2016 }}, Arab Origins of the Discovery of the Refraction of Light; Roshdi Hifni Rashed (Picture) Awarded the 2007 King Faisal International Prize, Optics & Photonics News (OPN, Logo), Vol. 18, No. 10, pp. 22–23 (October 2007).</ref> Su libro esseva traducite in latino e esseva usate como un fonte principal sur le scientia de optica in Europa usque le seculo XVII.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/>

==== Institutionalisation del medicina ====
Le scientias medical esseva prominentemente cultivate in le mundo islamic.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> Le opera del theorias medic grec, specialmente illos de Galeno, esseva traducite in arabe, e il habeva un affluente de textos medical per medicos islamic, que habeva como scopo organisar, elaborar e disseminar le cognoscentia medic classic.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> Specialitates medic comenciava a emerger, como illos involvite in le tractamento de maladias ocular como cataractas. Ibn Sina (cognoscite como Avicenna in le Occidente, c. 980–1037) esseva un prolific encyclopedista medic perse<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Nasr|first=Seyyed Hossein|year=2007|title=Avicenna|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9011433/Avicenna|access-date=3 June 2010|archive-date=31 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031092920/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9011433/Avicenna|url-status=live}}</ref> qui scribeva extensivemente super medicina,<ref name="Jacquart, Danielle 2008">Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.</ref><ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).</ref> con su duo obras le plus notabile in medicina essente le Kitāb al-shifāʾ ("Libro del Sanation") e le Canone del Medicina, ambes usate como textos medicinal standard tanto in le mundo musulman como in Europa usque le seculo XVII. Inter su multe contributiones on pote mentionar le discoperta del natura contagiose de maladias infectiose,<ref name="Jacquart, Danielle 2008"/> e le introduction de pharmacologia clinic.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Brater | first1=D. Craig | last2=Daly | first2=Walter J. | year=2000 | title=Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century | journal=Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics | volume=67 | issue=5| pages=447–450 [448] | doi=10.1067/mcp.2000.106465 | pmid=10824622| s2cid=45980791 }}</ref> Le institutionalisation del medicina esseva un altere importante realisation in le mundo islamic. Ben que hospitales como institution pro le malade emergeva in le imperio Byzantin, le modello de medicina institutional pro tote classes social esseva extensive in le imperio islamic e esseva disseminate a traverso tote le partes. Al addition de tractar patientes, medicos poteva instruer apprentisses medic, como etiam scriber e facer recerca. Le discoperta del transito pulmonar de sanguine in le corpore human per Ibn al-Nafis occurreva in un ambiente hospitalar.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/>

==== Declino ====
Le scientia islamic comenciava su declino in le seculos 12–13, ante le Renascentia in Europa, de parte al christian reconquesta de Espania e le conquestas mongol in le Oriente in le seculos 11–13. Le mongoles saccheava Bagdad, le capital del califato abbasida, in 1258, lo que terminava le imperio abbaside.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/><ref name="Erica Fraser 1600">Erica Fraser. The Islamic World to 1600, University of Calgary.</ref> Nonobstante, multe del conquirentes deveniva patronos del scientias. Hulagu Khan, per exemplo, qui dirigeva le assedio de Bagdad, deveniva un patrono del observatorio de Maragheh.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/> Le astronomia islamic continuava a florescer usque al seculo 16.<ref name= "lindberg2007h"/>

=== Europa Occidental ===
[[File:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg|thumb|Statua de [[Roger Bacon]] al [[Oxford University Museum of Natural History]].]]

Al seculo dece-un, le majoritate de Europa esseva christian; monarchias plus forte emergeva; limites era restaurate; developpamentos technologic e innovationes agricole occurreva, augmentante le provision de alimentos e le population. Textos classic grec esseva traducite de arabe e greco in latino, stimulante le discussion scientific in Europa Occidental.<ref>Lindberg, David. (1992) ''The Beginnings of Western Science''  University of Chicago Press. p. 204.</ref>

In le antiquitate classic, tabus grec e roman sovente significava que le dissection era generalmente prohibite, ma in le Medievo professores e studentes medic in Bologna comenciava a aperir corpores human, e Mondino de Luzzi (circa 1275–1326) produceva le prime libro de anatomia cognoscite basate sur dissection human.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=978-0674057418 |last=Numbers |first=Ronald |title=Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion |page=45 |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-03327-6 |access-date=12 April 2018 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120190509/https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120190509/https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 |date=20 January 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2011/04/debunking-a-myth/ |title=Debunking a myth |date=7 April 2011 |publisher=Harvard University |access-date=12 April 2018 |archive-date=28 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728101124/https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2011/04/debunking-a-myth/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Como resultato del ''Pax Mongolica'', europeos, tales como Marco Polo, comenciava a aventurar se plus e plus verso le oriente. Le relationes scribite per Polo e su companiones de viage inspirava altere exploratores maritime europee occidental a cercar un route directe per mar a Asia, concludente al Epocha del Discopertas.<ref name= "love2006a">{{cite book | last = Love | first= Ronald S. | year = 2006 | chapter = Historical overview | title = Maritime Exploration in the Age of Discovery, 1415–1800 | pages = 1–8  | location = Westport, Connecticut | publisher = Greenwood | isbn= 978-0313320439}}</ref>

Progressos technologic anque occurreva, como le prime volo de Eilmer de Malmesbury (qui habeva studiate mathematica in le seculo 11 in Anglaterra),<ref name="Eilmer">[[William of Malmesbury]], ''[[Gesta Regum Anglorum]] / The history of the English kings'', ed. and trans. R.A.B. Mynors, R.M. Thomson, and M. Winterbottom, 2 vols., Oxford Medieval Texts (1998–99)</ref> e le avantiamentos metallurgic del alte furno cisterciense in Laskill.<ref name="Laskill">R.W. Vernon, G. McDonnell and A. Schmidt, 'An integrated geophysical and analytical appraisal of early iron-working: three case studies' ''Historical Metallurgy'' 31(2) (1998), 72–75 79.</ref><ref name="Derbeyshire">David Derbyshire, ''Henry "Stamped Out Industrial Revolution"'', [[The Daily Telegraph]] (21 June 2002)</ref>

==== Universitates medieval ====
Un revitalisation intellectual de Europa Occidental comenciava con le initio del universitates medieval in le seculo dece-duo. Iste institutiones urban cresceva a partir del activitates scholastic informe de monachos docte qui visitava monasterios, consultava bibliothecas, e conversava con altere eruditos.<ref name= "gal2021d">{{cite book | last= Gal | first = Ofer | year = 2021 | chapter = Medieval learning | title = The Origins of Modern Science | pages = 101–138 | location = New York, New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-1316649701}}</ref> Un monacho qui deveniva ben cognoscite poteva attraher un sequitor de discipulos, dante loco a un fraternitate de studiosos (o ''collegium'' in latino). Un ''collegium'' poteva viagiar a un citate o demandar a un monasterio de hospitar les. Tamen, si le numero de studiosos in un ''collegium'' cresceva troppo, illes poteva optar pro establir se in un citate.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Como le numero de collegios in un citate cresceva, illes poteva demandar que lor rege les concedeva un carta que les converterea in un ''universitas''.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Multe universitates esseva chartate durante iste periodo, con le prime in Bologna in 1088, sequite per Paris in 1150, Oxford in 1167, e Cambridge in 1231.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Le concession de un charta significava que le universitates medieval esseva partialmente soveranee e independent del autoritates local.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Lor independentia los permitteva a ager secundo lor proprie regulas e judicar lor proprie membros basate sur lor proprie leges. De plus, como institutiones initialmente religiose, lor facultates e studentes esseva protegite ab pena capital (p.ex. le furca).<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Tal independentia esseva un question de costume, que, in theoria, poteva esser revocate per lor respective governantes si illes se sentiva menaciate. Disputationes sur varie themas o assertiones in iste institutiones medieval, quamquam controverse, se faceva de un maniera formalisate de tal modo que on declarava que iste disputationes occurreva intra le limites de un universitate e, ergo, esseva protegite per le privilegios de ille institution.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Un assertion poteva esser describite como ''ex cathedra'' (litteralmente "ex le cathedra", usate in le contexto del docentia) o ''ex hypothesi'' (per hypothese). Isto significa que le disputationes esseva presentate como solmente un exercitio intellectual que non requireva que on se ingagia al veritate de un assertion o que se faceva proselyto. Conceptos e practicas academic moderne como libertate academic o libertate de investigation es vestigios de iste privilegios medieval que esseva tolerate in le passato.<ref name= "gal2021d"/>

Le curriculo de iste institutiones medieval se centrava sur le septe artes libere, que habeva como scopo fornir a studentes novicios le habilitates pro rationamento e le lingua erudite.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Studentes comenciarea lor studios con le prime tres artes libere o ''Trivium'' (grammatica, rhetorica, e logica) sequite per le sequente quatro artes libere o ''Quadrivium'' (arithmetica, geometria, astronomia, e musica).<ref name= "gal2021d"/><ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Illes qui completava iste requisitos e recipeva lor baccalaureato (o Baccalaureo in Arte) habeva le option de adherer al facultate superior (jure, medicina, o theologia), que les confererea un doctorato de leges pro un advocato, un doctorato de medicina pro un medice, o doctorato de theologia pro un theologo.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Studentes qui eligeva remaner in le facultate inferior (artes) poteva laborar verso un ''Magister'' (o Magistro) e studiar tres philosophias: metaphysica, etica, e philosophia natural.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Traductiones in latino del obras de Aristotele, como ''De Anima'' (Sur le Anima) e le commentarios sur illos, esseva lecturas obligatori. Con le passar del tempore, le facultate inferior habeva le derecto de conferer lor proprie grado doctoral nominato le doctorato de philosophia.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Multe magistros se dirigeva verso encyclopedias e les usava como libros de texto. Ma iste studiosos desirava le textos original complete de philosophos, mathematicos, e medicos del antiquitate grec tal como Aristotele, Euclide, e Galeno, que non esseva disponibile a illes in ille epocha. Ille textos antique grec esseva trovate in le Imperio Byzantin e le Mundo Islamic.<ref name= "gal2021d"/>

==== Traductiones de fontes arabe e grec ====
Le contacto con le Imperio Byzantin,<ref name=Lindberg1992p162/> e con le mundo Islamic durante le Reconquesta e le cruciadas, dava al Europa latin accesso a textos scientific grec e arabic, includente le obras de Aristotele, Ptolemeo, Isidoro de Miletus, John Philoponus, Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, e Averroes. Studiosos europee habeva accesso al programmas de traduction de Raymond de Toledo, qui patrocinava le Schola Toledo de Traductores del seculo 12 de arabe a latino. Traductores postea como Michael Scotus apprenderea arabe pro studiar iste textos directemente. Le universitates europee prestava materialmente lor adjuta in le traduction e propagation de iste textos e initiava un nove infrastructura que esseva necessari pro communitates scientific. De facto, le universitate europee poneva multe obras sur le mundo natural e le studio de natura al centro de lor curriculo,<ref>Huff, Toby. ''Rise of early modern science'' 2nd ed. pp. 180–181</ref> con le resultato que le "universitate medieval accentuava multo plus le scientia que su homologo moderne e descendente."<ref>Grant, Edward. "Science in the Medieval University", in James M. Kittleson and Pamela J. Transue, ed., ''Rebirth, Reform and Resilience: Universities in Transition, 1300–1700'', Ohio State University Press, 1984, p. 68</ref>

Al initio del seculo 13, on habeva traductiones latin bastante accurate del obras principal de quasi tote le autores antique intellectualmente crucial, permittente un transferentia solide de ideas scientific via tanto le universitates como le monasterios. In ille epocha, le philosophia natural in iste textos comenciava a esser extendite per scholasticos como Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, e Duns Scotus. Precursores del methodo scientific moderne, influentiate per contributiones previe del mundo islamic, pote esser observate jam in le emphase de Grosseteste sur le mathematica como un via pro comprender le natura, e in le approche empiric admirate per Bacon, particularmente in su ''Opus Majus''. Le these de Pierre Duhem es que le Condemnation de 1277 per Stephen Tempier – le episcopo de Paris – conduceva al studio del scientia medieval como un disciplina serie, "ma nemo plus in le campo nunc susteneva su vista que le scientia moderne comenciava in 1277".<ref name="Stanford">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/condemnation/ |title=Condemnation of 1277 |first=Hans |last=Thijssen |encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |date=30 January 2003 |access-date=14 September 2009 |publisher=[[University of Stanford]] |archive-date=11 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170311030803/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/condemnation/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Tamen, multe studiosos concorda con le opinion de Duhem que le medio-tardive Medievo videva importantes developpamentos scientific.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rediscovering the Science of the Middle Ages |url=http://biologos.org/blog/rediscovering-the-science-of-the-middle-ages |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301161246/https://biologos.org/articles/rediscovering-the-science-of-the-middle-ages |archive-date=1 March 2023 |access-date=26 October 2014 |publisher=BioLogos}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://icucourses.com/pages/023-a03-the-middle-ages-and-the-birth-of-science|title=023-A03: The Middle Ages and the Birth of Science – International Catholic University|work=International Catholic University|access-date=26 October 2014|archive-date=26 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026061525/http://icucourses.com/pages/023-a03-the-middle-ages-and-the-birth-of-science|url-status=live|accessdate=17 January 2024|archivedate=26 October 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026061525/http://icucourses.com/pages/023-a03-the-middle-ages-and-the-birth-of-science}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=History: A medieval multiverse|volume=507|issue=7491|pages=161–163|journal=Nature News & Comment|doi=10.1038/507161a|pmid=24627918|year=2014|last1=McLeish|first1=Tom C. B.|author-link1=Tom McLeish|last2=Bower|first2=Richard G.|last3=Tanner |first3=Brian K.|last4=Smithson|first4=Hannah E.|last5=Panti|first5=Cecilia|last6=Lewis|first6=Neil|last7=Gasper|first7=Giles E.M.|url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/16743/1/16743.pdf|access-date=15 July 2019|archive-date=23 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723044419/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/16743/1/16743.pdf|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Scientia medieval ====
Le prime medietate del seculo 14 viderea multe travalio scientific importante, principalmente intra le contexto de commentarios scholastic sur le scripturas scientific de Aristotele.<ref>Edward Grant, ''The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts'', (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 127–131.</ref> William de Ockham poneva emphase al principio de parsimonia: philosophos natural non debe postular entitates non necessari, de modo que le motion non es un cosa distincte ma solmente le objecto movente,<ref>Edward Grant, ''A Source Book in Medieval Science'', (Harvard Univ. Press, 1974), p. 232</ref> e un intermediari "species sensibile" non es necesse pro transmitter un imagine de un objecto al oculo.<ref>David C. Lindberg, ''Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler'', (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 140–142.</ref> Studiosos como Jean Buridan e Nicole Oresme comenciava a reinterpretar elementos del mechanica aristotelic. In particular, Buridan developpava le theoria que le impeto esseva le causa del motion de projectiles, que esseva un prime passo verso le concepto moderne de inertia.<ref>Edward Grant, ''The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts'', (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 95–97.</ref> Le Calculatores de Oxford comenciava a analysar mathematicamente le cinematica del motion, faciente iste analyse sin considerar le causas del motion.<ref>Edward Grant, ''The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts'', (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 100–103.</ref>

In 1348, le Peste Nigre e altere catastrophes sigillava un brusc fin al developpamento philosophic e scientific. Tamen, le rediscoperta de textos ancian esseva stimulate per le Cadentia de Constantinopole in 1453, quando multe studiosos byzantin cercava refugio in le Occidente. Interim, le introduction del impression habeva un grande effecto sur le societate europee. Le dissemination facilitate del parola impresse democratisava le apprendimento e permitteva que ideas como algebra se propagava plus rapidemente. Iste developpamentos paviva le cammino pro le Revolution Scientific, ubi le inquisition scientific, que se arrestava al initio del Peste Nigre, resumeva.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Renaissance: The 'Rebirth' of Science & Culture|url=https://www.livescience.com/55230-renaissance.html|first=Jessie|department=Historical development|last=Szalay|date=2016-06-29|website=LiveScience.com|access-date=2019-07-19|archive-date=27 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027214636/https://www.livescience.com/55230-renaissance.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oK4HTBcdSJsC&pg=PR14|first=Robert S.|last=Gottfried|publisher=Free Press|isbn=978-0-02-912370-6|title=The Black Death: Natural & Human Disaster in Medieval Europe|year=1985|access-date=2019-07-19|page=xiv|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803141629/https://books.google.com/books?id=oK4HTBcdSJsC&pg=PR14|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Renascentia ==
=== Revivification del cognoscentia ===
Le renascentia del cognoscentia in Europa comenciava con le [[scholastica]] del seculo XII. Le Renascentia del Nord monstra un cambio decisive in concentration ab le philosophia natural aristotelic verso le chimia e le scientias biologic (botanica, anatomia, e medicina).<ref>[[Allen Debus]], ''Man and Nature in the Renaissance'', (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1978).</ref> Assi, le scientia moderne in Europa esseva recomenciate in un periodo de grande revolution: le [[Reforma protestante]] e le Contrareforma Catholic; le [[Discoperta europee de America|discoperta de America]] per [[Christophoro Columbo]]; le Cadentia de Constantinopole; ma etiam le re-discoperta de Aristotele durante le periodo scholastic presagiva grande cambios social e politic. Assi, on creava un ambiente apte in le qual il deveniva possibile interrogar doctrinas scientific, in le maniera que [[Martin Luther]] e [[Johannes Calvin]] interrogava doctrinas religiose. Le obras de Ptolemeo (astronomia) e Galeno (medicina) non sempre correspondeva con le observationes quotidian. Le labor de Vesalius sur cadaveres human revelava problemas con le perspectiva galenic del anatomia.<ref>Precise titles of these landmark books can be found in the collections of the [[Library of Congress]]. A list of these titles can be found in {{harvnb|Bruno|1989}}</ref>

Le discoperta del crystallo contribueva al avantiamento del scientia in ille periodo con su apparition ex Venetia circa 1450. Le nove vitro permitteva melior spectaculos e, eventualmente, le inventiones del telescopio e microscopio.

Le obra de Theophrastus sur petras, "Peri lithōn", remaneva autoritative pro millennios: su interpretation de fossiles non esseva subvertite usque post le Revolution Scientific.

Durante le Renascentia Italian, Niccolò Machiavelli establiva le emphase del moderne scientia politic sur le observation empiric directe de institutiones e actores politic. Postea, le expansion del paradigma scientific durante le Illumination impulsava plus avante le studio del politica ultra determinationes normative.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://world101.cfr.org/contemporary-history/prelude-global-era/what-enlightenment-and-how-did-it-transform-politics|title=What Is the Enlightenment and How Did It Transform Politics?|website=World101 from the Council on Foreign Relations}}</ref> In particular, le studio del statisticas, pro analysar le subjectos del stato, ha essite applicate a sondages e electiones.

In archeologia, le seculos XV e XVI videva le ascension de antiquarios in le Renascentia Europee qui esseva interessate in le collection de artefactos.

=== Revolution scientific e nascentia de Nove Scientia ===
[[File:Justus Sustermans - Portrait of Galileo Galilei, 1636.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Galileo Galilei]], patre del scientia moderne.]]

Le periodo del initio moderne es vidite como un floration del Renascentia europee. Il habeva un disposition a questionar veritates previemente acceptate e cercar nove responsas. Isto resultava in un periodo de avantiamentos scientific major, nunc cognoscite como le Revolution Scientific, que conducerea al emergentia de un Scientia Nove que esseva plus mechanistic in su vision del mundo, plus integrate con mathematica, e plus fidibile e aperte, proque su cognoscentia se basava sur un methodo scientific novemente definite.<ref name= "lindberg2007n"/><ref name="gal2021i"/><ref name="bowlermorus2020b"/><ref>See, for example, {{harvnb|Heilbron|2003|pp=741–744}}</ref> Le Revolution Scientific es un limite conveniente inter le pensamento antique e le physica classic, e es generalmente reputate haber comenciate in 1543, quando le libros "De humani corporis fabrica" (Sur le Operationes del Corpore Human) per Andreas Vesalius, e anque "De Revolutionibus" per le astronomo Nicolao Copernico, esseva primo imprimite. Le periodo culminava con le publication del "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" in 1687 per Isaac Newton, representante del crescentia sin precedentes de publicationes scientific a traverso Europa.

Altere avantiamentos scientific significative esseva facite durante iste epocha per Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Edmond Halley, William Harvey, Pierre Fermat, Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens, Tycho Brahe, Marin Mersenne, Gottfried Leibniz, Isaac Newton, e Blaise Pascal.<ref name="Schuster 1996">{{cite book |author-last=Schuster |author-first=John A. |year=1996 |origyear=1990 |editor1-last=Cantor |editor1-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Olby |editor2-first=Robert |editor3-last=Christie |editor3-first=John |editor4-last=Hodge |editor4-first=Jonathon |title=Companion to the History of Modern Science |chapter=Scientific Revolution |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6GIPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 |location=[[Abingdon, Oxfordshire]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=217–242 |isbn=978-0415145787 |access-date=27 September 2021 |archive-date=27 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927191043/https://books.google.com/books?id=6GIPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 |url-status=live }}</ref> In philosophia, contributiones major esseva facite per Francis Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Pierre Gassendi, Robert Boyle, e Thomas Hobbes.<ref name="Schuster 1996"/> Christiaan Huygens derivava le fortias centripete e centrifugal e esseva le prime a transferer investigation mathematic a describer phenomenos physic non observabile. William Gilbert faceva alcun del prime experimentos con electricitate e magnetismo, e establiva que le Terra mesme es magnetic.

==== Heliocentrismo ====
Le modello astronomic heliocentric del universo esseva perfectionate per [[Nicolaus Copernico]]. Copernico proponeva le idea que le Terra e tote le spheras celestial, que contine le planetas e altere objectos in le cosmo, rotava circum le Sol.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Principe |first=Lawrence M. |title=The Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-956741-6 |location=New York, NY |pages=47}}</ref> Su modello heliocentric anque proponeva que tote le stellas esseva fixe e non rotava sur un axe, ni in ulle movimento.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Knox |first=Dilwyn |title=Ficino, Copernicus and Bruno on the Motion of the Earth |date=1999 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24331708 |journal=Bruniana & Campanelliana |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=333–366 |jstor=24331708 |issn=1125-3819 |access-date=4 December 2022 |archive-date=4 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204025441/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24331708 |url-status=live }}</ref> Su theoria proponeva le rotation annual del Terra e le altere spheras celestial circum le Sol e poteva calcular le distantias de planetas usante deferentes e epicyclos. Ben que iste calculationes non esseva completemente precise, Copernico poteva comprender le ordine de distantia de cata sphera celestial. Le systema heliocentric copernican esseva un revivification del hypotheses de Aristarchus de Samos e Seleucus de Seleucia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gingerich |first=Owen |date=1973 |title=From Copernicus to Kepler: Heliocentrism as Model and as Reality |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/986462 |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=117 |issue=6 |pages=513–522 |jstor=986462 |issn=0003-049X}}</ref> Aristarchus de Samos proponeva que le Terra rotava circum le Sol ma non mentionava ulle cosa sur le ordine, motion o rotation del altere spheras celestial.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neugebauer |first=O. |date=1945 |title=The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/542323 |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=20–23 |doi=10.1086/370729 |jstor=542323 |s2cid=39274542 |issn=0022-2968}}</ref> Seleucus de Seleucia anque proponeva le rotation del Terra circum le Sol ma non mentionava ulle cosa sur le altere spheras celestial. In plus, Seleucus de Seleucia comprendeva que le Luna rotava circum le Terra e poteva esser usate pro explicar le mareas del oceano, assi corroborante su comprehension del idea heliocentric.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carman |first=Christián C. |date=2018 |title=The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45211937 |journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3 |jstor=45211937 |s2cid=253894214 |issn=0003-9519 |access-date=4 December 2022 |archive-date=4 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204025440/https://www.jstor.org/stable/45211937 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Methodo scientific definite de novo ====
Anque le methodo scientific esseva melio developpate como le maniera moderne de pensar poneva emphase al experimento e al ration super considerationes traditional. Galileo ("Patre del Physica Moderne") utilisava experimentos pro confirmar theorias physic, un elemento clave del methodo scientific.

== Seculo del Lumines ==
=== Continuation del Revolution Scientific ===
Le Revolution Scientific continuava al Seculo del Lumines, que accelerava le developpamento del scientia moderne.

==== Planetas e orbitas ====
Le modello heliocentric revivite per Nicolao Copernico esseva sequite per le modello del motion planetari presentate per Johannes Kepler al initio del seculo 17, le qual proponeva que le planetas sequerea orbitas elliptic, con le Sol al foco del ellipse.

==== Calculo e mechanica newtonian ====
[[File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg| thumb|upright|right|[[Isaac Newton]] initiava le [[mecanica classic]] in le campo de [[physica]].]]

In 1687, Isaac Newton publicava le ''Principia Mathematica'', detaliante duo theorias physic comprehensive e succedite: le leges de motion de Newton, que conduceva al mechanic classic; e le lege de gravitation universal de Newton, que describe le fortia fundamental del gravitate.

==== Apparition del chimia ====
Un momento decisive occurreva quando "chimia" esseva distinguite de alchimia per Robert Boyle in su obra ''The Sceptical Chymist'' in 1661; ben que le tradition alchimic continuava pro un certe periodo post su obra. Altere passos importante includeva le practicas experimental gravimetric de chimicos medical como William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman e Pierre Macquer e le labor de Antoine Lavoisier ("patre del chimia moderne") sur oxygeno e le lege de conservation de massa, que refutava le theoria del phlogiston. Le chimia moderne emergeva del seculo XVI al XVIII per le practicas material e theorias promovite per alchimia, medicina, manufactura e exploitation minerari.<ref>{{Cite journal |editor=Eddy, Matthew Daniel |editor2=Mauskopf, Seymour |editor3=Newman, William R. |title=Chemical Knowledge in the Early Modern World |journal=Osiris |volume=29 |date=2014 |pages=1–15 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6629576 |last1=Newman |first1=William R. |last2=Mauskopf |first2=Seymour H. |last3=Eddy |first3=Matthew Daniel |pmid=26103744 |doi=10.1086/678110 |s2cid=29035688 |access-date=19 September 2014 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730040038/https://www.academia.edu/6629576 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Florin George Calian |url=http://archive.org/details/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe |title=Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hroncek |first=Susan |date=2017 |title=From Egyptian Science to Victorian Magic: On the Origins of Chemistry in Victorian Histories of Science |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/711530 |journal=Victorian Review |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=213–228 |doi=10.1353/vcr.2017.0032 |s2cid=166044943 |issn=1923-3280 |access-date=28 April 2022 |archive-date=12 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512071829/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/711530 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Systema circulatori ====
William Harvey publicava ''De Motu Cordis'' in 1628, que revelava su conclusiones basate in su extensive studios del systemas circulatori de vertebratos.<ref name="Schuster 1996"/> Ille identificava le rolo central del corde, arterias e venas in producer le movimento de sanguine in un circulo, e non trovava alcun confirmation del conceptiones pre-existente de Galeno sur le functiones de calefaction e refrigeration.<ref>Power, d'Arcey. Life of Harvey. Longmans, Green, & co.</ref> Le historia del biologia e medicina del epocha moderne initial es frequentemente narrate a transverso del cerca del sede del anima.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-soul/|title=Ancient Theories of Soul|last=Stanford|date=2003|website=Plato.Stanford|access-date=2018-07-09|archive-date=7 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807014659/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-soul/|url-status=live}}</ref> Galeno in su descriptiones de su labor fundamental in medicina presenta le distinctiones inter arterias, venas e nervos usante le vocabulario del anima.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Galen on Respiration and the arteries|last=Galen|first=David|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1984|location=UCSC library|page=201}}</ref>

==== Societates e jornales scientific ====
Un innovation critic esseva le creation de societates scientific permanente e lor jornales scholar, que accelerava drasticamente le diffusion de nove ideas. Typic esseva le fundation del Societate Regal in London in 1660 e su jornal in 1665, le ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society'', le prime jornal scientific in anglese.<ref>Meyrick H. Carré, "The Formation of the Royal Society" ''History Today'' (Aug 1960) 10#8 pp 564–571.</ref> In 1665 anque appareva le prime jornal in francese, le ''Journal des sçavans''. Con le inspiration ex le obras de Newton, Descartes, Pascal e Leibniz, le scientia se dirigeva verso le mathematica, physica e technologia moderne al tempore del generation de Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) e Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783). Le Encyclopédie de Denis Diderot, publicate inter 1751 e 1772, portava iste nove comprension a un publico plus extense. Le impacto de iste processo non esseva limitate a scientia e technologia, ma afficeva etiam philosophia (Immanuel Kant, David Hume), religion (le crescente impacto del scientia sur religion) e le societate

==== Developpamentos in geologia ====
[[File:Anoplotherium 1812 Skeleton Sketch.jpg|thumb|Reconstruction skeletal e muscular de ''[[Anoplotherium commune]]'' de 1812 per Georges Cuvier basate super restos fossil del Bacino de Paris.]]

Le geologia non subiva un restructuration systematic durante le Revolution Scientific, sed existeva como un massa de ideas isolate e discoordinate sur petras, minerales, e formas terren multo ante que illo deveniva un scientia coherente. Robert Hooke formulava un theoria de tremores de terra, e Nicholas Steno developpava le theoria de superposition e argumentava que fossiles esseva le restos de creaturas antea vivente. Comenciante con le ''Sacred Theory of the Earth'' de Thomas Burnet in 1681, philosophos natural comenciava a explorar le idea que le Terra habeva cambiate con le tempore. Burnet e su contemporaneos interpretava le passato del Terra in terminos de eventos describite in le Biblia, ma lor labor preparava le fundamento intellectual pro interpretationes secular del historia del Terra.

=== Postea le Revolution Scientific ===
==== Bioelectricitate ====
Durante le fin del seculo XVIII, recercatores como Hugh Williamson<ref name="VanderVeer 2011">{{cite journal |last=VanderVeer |first=Joseph B. |title=Hugh Williamson: Physician, Patriot, and Founding Father |journal=Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=306 |issue=1 |date=6 July 2011 |doi=10.1001/jama.2011.933 }}</ref> e John Walsh experimentava con le effectos de electricitate sur le corpore human. Studios ulterior per Luigi Galvani e Alessandro Volta stabiliva le natura electric de lo que Volta nominava galvanismo.<ref name="Edwards 2021">{{cite web |last=Edwards |first=Paul |title=A Correction to the Record of Early Electrophysiology Research on the 250th Anniversary of a Historic Expedition to Île de Ré |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03423498/document |publisher=HAL open-access archive |access-date=6 May 2022 |date=10 November 2021 |id=hal-03423498 |archive-date=6 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220506153323/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03423498/document |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Bresadola 367–380">{{cite journal |last=Bresadola |first=Marco |title=Medicine and science in the life of Luigi Galvani |journal=Brain Research Bulletin |date=15 July 1998 |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=367–380 |doi=10.1016/s0361-9230(98)00023-9 |pmid=9739000|s2cid=13035403}}</ref>

==== Developpamentos in geologia ====
Le geologia moderne, como le chimia moderne, evolveva gradualmente durante le seculos XVIII e principio del XIX. Benoît de Maillet e le Comte de Buffon videva le Terra como multo plus vetule que le 6.000 annos imaginate per scholares biblic. Jean-Étienne Guettard e Nicolas Desmarest faceva excursiones in le Francia central e registrava lor observationes in alcun del prime mappas geologic. Adjutate per experimentos chimic, naturalistas como John Walker de Scotia,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Matthew Daniel Eddy|title=The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School 1750–1800|date=2008|publisher=Ashgate|url=https://www.academia.edu/1112014|access-date=19 September 2014|archive-date=3 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903230852/http://www.academia.edu/1112014/The_Language_of_Mineralogy_John_Walker_Chemistry_and_the_Edinburgh_Medical_School_1750-1800_2008_|url-status=live}}</ref> Torbern Bergman de Svedia, e Abraham Werner de Germania creava systemas de classification comprehensive pro petras e minerales – un realisation collective que transformava le geologia in un campo avantiate verso le fin del seculo XVIII. Iste prime geologos proponeva anque interpretationes general de historia terrestre que portava James Hutton, Georges Cuvier e Alexandre Brongniart, sequente le passos de Steno, a argumentar que stratos de rocca pote esser datate per le fossiles que illos contineva: un principio primarimente applicate al geologia del Bassino de Paris. Le uso de fossiles indice deveniva un utensile potente pro crear mappas geologic, proque illo permitteva a geologos correlar le roccas in un loco con illos de etate simile in altere locos distante.

==== Nascentia del economia moderne ====
[[File:AdamSmith.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Adam Smith]] scribeva ''[[La Ricchessa del Nationes]]'', le prime obra moderne de economia.]]

Le fundamento pro le economia classic forma le obra de Adam Smith "Un Inquisition sur le Natura e le Causas del Ricchessa del Nationes", publicate in 1776. Smith criticava le mercantilismo, advocante un systema de commercio libere con division del labor. Ille postulava un "mano invisibile" que regulava systemas economic consistente de agentes guidate solmente per interesse personal. Le "mano invisibile" mentionate in un pagina perdite in le medie de un capitulo in le medio del "Ricchessa del Nationes", 1776, emerge como le message central de Smith.

==== Scientia social ====
Anthropologia pote esser melio comprehendite como un producto del Seculo del Lumines. Il esseva durante iste periodo que europeos essayava systematicamente studiar le comportamento human. Traditiones de jurisprudentia, historia, philologia e sociologia se developpava durante iste periodo e informava le evolution del scientias social, del qual le anthropologa faceva parte.

== Seculo XIX ==
Le seculo XIX vide le nascentia del scientia como profession. William Whewell habeva cuniate le termino "scientista" in 1833,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | access-date=3 March 2008 | url=http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/ | title=William Whewell | encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | publisher=The Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | date=2000-12-23 | last1=Snyder | first1=Laura J. | archive-date=4 January 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104025611/http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/entries/whewell/ | url-status=live }}</ref> le qual presto substitueva le vetule termino ''philosopho natural''.

=== Developpamentos in physica ===
[[File:Painting of Volta by Bertini (photo).jpeg|thumb| right |[[Alessandro Volta]] demonstra le prime [[cellula electrochemical|cellula electrical]] a [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon]] in 1801.]]

In physic, le comportamento de electricitate e magnetismo esseva studiate per Giovanni Aldini, Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm, e alteres. Le experimentos, theorias e discopertas de Michael Faraday, André-Marie Ampère, James Clerk Maxwell, e lor contemporaneos conduceva al unification del duo phenomenos in un theoria solmente de electromagnetismo como describite per le equationes de Maxwell. Le thermodynamica conduceva al comprehension de calor e al notion de energia esser definite.

=== Discoperta de Neptuno ===
Avantages in astronomia e in systemas optic in le seculo XIX resultava in le prime observation de un asteroide ([[Ceres (planeta nano)|1 Ceres]]) in 1801, e le discoperta de [[Neptuno]] in 1846.

=== Developpamentos in mathematica ===
In mathematica, le notion de numeros complexe maturava finalmente e conduceva a un theoria analytic subsequente; illos anque comenciava le uso de numeros hypercomplexe. Karl Weierstrass e alteres realisava le arithmetisation de analyse pro functiones de numeros real e complexe. Le periodo viderea etiam le ascension de nove progresso in geometria ultra ille theorias classic de Euclide, post un periodo de quasi duo milles annos. Le scientia mathematic de logica anque habeva revolutionari manifestationes decisive post un periodo similarmente longe de stagnation. Ma le passo le plus importante in le scientia in iste tempore esseva le ideas formulate per le creator del scientia electric. Lor travalio cambiava le physionomia del physica e faceva possibile pro un nove technologia a emerger tal como le potentia electric, le telegrapho electric, le telephono, e le radio.

=== Developpamentos in chimia ===
[[File:DIMendeleevCab.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Dmitri Mendeleev]].]]
In chimia, Dmitri Mendeleev, sequente le theoria atomic de John Dalton, creava le prime tabula periodic del elementos. Altere punctos culminante include le discopertas que revelava le natura del structura atomic e de materia, simultaneemente con le chimia – e de nove sortas de radiation. Le theoria que tote le materia es facite de atomos, le quales es le minime constituentes de materia que non pote esser divulse sin perder le proprietates chimic e physic basic de ille materia, esseva presentate per John Dalton in 1803, ben que le question prendeva cento annos pro stabilir se como probate. Dalton anque formulava le lege de proportionalitate de massas. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev componeva su tabula periodic del elementos super le bases del discopertas de Dalton. Le synthesis de urea per Friedrich Wöhler aperiva un nove campo de recerca, le chimia organic, e al fin del seculo XIX, scientistas poteva synthetisar centos de compositos organic. Le parte posterior del seculo XIX vide le exploitation del petroproductos del Terra, post le depletion del provisiones de petroleo ex le piscar de balenas. In le seculo XX, le production systematic de material raffinate forniva un provision immediate de productos que provideva non solmente energia, ma anque materiales synthetic pro vestimento, medicina, e ressources quotidian a uso unic. Le application del technicas de chimia organic a organismos vivente resultava in chimia physiologic, le precursor al biochimia.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17152615/|title=History of biochemistry|first1=Parduman|last1=Singh|first2=H. S.|last2=Batra|first3=Manisha|last3=Naithani|date=6 January 2004|journal=Bulletin of the Indian Institute of History of Medicine (Hyderabad)|volume=34|issue=1|pages=75–86|via=PubMed|pmid=17152615}}</ref>

=== Etate del Terra ===
Durante le prime medietate del seculo XIX, geologos como Charles Lyell, Adam Sedgwick, e Roderick Murchison applicava le nove technica a roccas in tote Europa e le partes oriental de America del Nord, preparante le scenario pro projectos de cartographia plus detaliate, supportate per le governamento, in decennios subsequente. Al medio del seculo XIX, le concentration de geologia cambiava de description e classification a tentativas de comprender como le superficie de Terra habeva cambiate. Le prime theorias comprehensive del construction de montanias esseva proponite durante iste periodo, como anque le prime theorias moderne de tremores de terra e vulcanos. Louis Agassiz e alteres stabiliva le realitate de glaciation continental, e "fluvialistas" como Andrew Crombie Ramsay argumentava que valles fluvial esseva formate, durante milliones de annos, per le rivos que flueva a transverso de illos. Post le discoperta del radioactivitate, le methodos de datar radiation comenciava a esser developpate, comenciate in le seculo XX. Le theoria de "derivation continental" de Alfred Wegener esseva largemente rejectate quando ille lo proponeva in le annos 1910,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pressbooks.howardcc.edu/worldgeography/chapter/chapter-3/|title=Chapter 3 Planet earth and Plate tectonics|first=R. Adam|last=Dastrup|via=pressbooks.howardcc.edu}}</ref> ma nove datos colligite in le annos 1950 e 1960 conduceva al theoria de tectonica de placas, que provideva un mechanismo plausibile pro illo. Tectonica de placas anque provideva un explanation unificate pro un varietate de phenomenos geologic apparentemente non connectite. Desde le annos 1960, illo ha servite como le principio unificante in geologia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/plate-tectonics|title=Plate Tectonics|website=education.nationalgeographic.org}}</ref>

=== Evolution e hereditate ===
[[File:Darwin tree.png|upright|thumb|right|A mediatos de julio de 1837, [[Charles Darwin]] initiava su quaderno "B" sur le ''Transmutation de Species'', e in le pagina 36 scribeva "Io crede" super su prime [[Arbor de Vita (scientia)|arbor evolutionari]].]]

Forsan le theoria le plus prominente, controverse e extense in tote le scientia ha essite le theoria de evolution per selection natural, que esseva formulate independentemente per Charles Darwin e Alfred Wallace. Illo esseva describite in detalio in le libro de Darwin "Le Origine del Species," que esseva publicate in 1859. In illo, Darwin proponeva que le characteristicas de omne formas de vita, includente humanos, esseva formate per processos natural super longe periodos de tempore. Le theoria de evolution in su forma currente affice quasi omne ramos de biologia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dobzhansky |first1=Theodosius |year=1964 |title=Biology, Molecular and Organismic |url=http://people.ibest.uidaho.edu/~bree/courses/1_Dobzhansky_1964.pdf |journal=American Zoologist |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=443–452 |doi=10.1093/icb/4.4.443 |pmid=14223586 |access-date=5 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220935/http://people.ibest.uidaho.edu/~bree/courses/1_Dobzhansky_1964.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead |doi-access=free }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220935/http://people.ibest.uidaho.edu/~bree/courses/1_Dobzhansky_1964.pdf |date=3 March 2016 }}</ref> Le implicationes del evolution sur campos foras de scientia pur ha provocate tanto opposition como appoio de differente partes del societate, e ha profundemente influentiate le comprehension popular de "le position del homine in le universo". Separatemente, Gregor Mendel formulava in 1866 le principios de hereditate, que deveniva le base del genetica moderne.

=== Theoria del germines ===
Un altere puncto importante in medicina e biologia esseva le effortios successose pro probas le theoria del germines de maladia. Subsequentemente a isto, [[Louis Pasteur]] creava le prime vaccino contra le rabie, e faceva multe discopertas in le campo del chimia, includente le asymmetria de crystallos. In 1847, le medico hungare Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis reduceva drasticamente le occurrentia de febre puerperal per simplemente exiger que medicos lavava lor manos ante attender feminas in parto. Iste discoperta precedeva le theoria del germines de [[maladia]]. Tamen, le conclusiones de Semmelweis non esseva appreciate per su contemporaneos, e le lavage de manos esseva prendite in uso solmente con le discopertas del chirurgo britannic Joseph Lister, qui in 1865 probava le principios de antisepsia. Le labor de Lister se basava sur le importante discopertas del biologo francese Louis Pasteur. Pasteur poteva ligar microorganismos con maladias, revolutionante medicina. Ille anque inventava le processo de pasteurisation, pro prevenir le propagation de maladias per le lacte e altere alimentos.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Campbell | first1=Neil A. | first2=Brad | last2=Williamson | first3=Robin J. | last3=Heyden | title=Biology: Exploring Life | publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall | year=2006 | url=http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html | isbn=978-0-13-250882-7 | oclc=75299209 | access-date=9 September 2008 | archive-date=2 November 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html | url-status=live }}{{page needed|date=April 2018}}</ref>

=== Scholas de economia ===
Karl Marx developpava un theoria economic alternative, nominate economia marxista. Le economia marxista se basa sur le theoria de labor e assume que le valor de un bono se basa sur le quantitate de labor necessari pro producer lo. Sub iste axioma, le capitalismo se basa sur que le patronos non paga le valor complete del labor de laboratores pro producer plus de valor. Le Schola Austriac respondeva al economia marxista considerante le interprenditores como le fortia propulsive del developpamento economic. Isto substitueva le theoria de labor pro un systema de offerta e demanda.

=== Fundation de psychologia ===
Psychologia como un interprisa scientific que esseva independente del philosophia comenciava in 1879 quando Wilhelm Wundt fundava le prime laboratorio dedicate exclusivemente al recerca psychologic (in Leipzig). Altere importantes contributores al campo includeva Hermann Ebbinghaus (un pionero in le studio del memoria), Ivan Pavlov (qui discoperiva le conditionamento classic), William James, e Sigmund Freud. Le influentia de Freud ha essite enorme, ben que plus como un icone cultural que como un fortia in le psychologia scientific.

=== Sociologia moderne ===
Sociologia moderne emergeva al initio del seculo XIX como le responsa academic al modernisation del mundo. Inter multes del prime sociologos (como Émile Durkheim), le scopo de sociologia esseva in structuralismo, comprender le cohesion de gruppos social, e developpar un "antidoto" contra le disintegration social. Max Weber se occupava del modernisation de societate per le concepto de rationalisation, que ille credeva capturarea individuos in un "cavia de ferro" de pensamento rational. Alicun sociologos, includente Georg Simmel e W. E. B. Du Bois, usava analyses microsociologic, qualitative. Iste approche al nivello micro jocava un rolo importante in le sociologia american, con le theorias de George Herbert Mead e su studente Herbert Blumer resultante in le creation del approche de interactionismo symbolic al sociologia. In particular, justo Auguste Comte illustrava con su travalio le transition de un periodo theologic a un metaphysic e, ex isto, a un positive. Comte se occupava del classification del scientias e del transitos de humanitate verso un stato de progresso attribuibile a un re-examination de natura secundo le affirmation de 'socialitate' como le base del societate interpretate scientificamente.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Natura, cultura e induzione nell'età delle scienze : fatti e idee del movimento scientifico in Francia e Inghilterra|last=Guglielmo|first=Rinzivillo|isbn=978-88-6812-497-7|location=Roma|pages=79–|oclc=913218837|date = 18 May 2015}}</ref>

=== Romanticismo ===
Le Movimento Romantic del initio del seculo XIX reformulava le scientia aperiente nove percursos impreviste in le approches classic del Illumination. Le declino del Romanticismo occurreva quando un nove movimento, le Positivismo, comenciava a captivar le ideal del intellectuales post 1840 e durava usque circa 1880. Al mesme tempore, le reaction romantic al Illumination produceva pensatores tal como Johann Gottfried Herder e plus tarde Wilhelm Dilthey, cuje obras formava le base pro le concepto de cultura que es central al disciplina. Traditionalmente, grande parte del historia del subjecto basava se in le incontros colonial inter le Europa Occidental e le resto del mundo, e multo del anthropologia del seculo XVIII e XIX ora es classificate como racismo scientific. Durante le tarde seculo XIX, battalias sur le "studio del homine" eveniva inter illes de un persuasion "anthropologic" (basate sur technicas anthropometric) e illos de un persuasion "ethnologic" (studiante culturas e traditiones), e iste distinctiones deveniva parte del ulterior separation inter anthropologia physic e anthropologia cultural, le ultime introducite per le discipulos de Franz Boas.

== Seculo XX ==
Scientia progrediva de maniera dramatic durante le seculo XX. Il habeva nove e radical disveloppamentos in le [[scientia physica|scientia physica]] e le [[scientias vital|scientias vital]], construente super le progressos del seculo XIX.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Agar | first = Jon | year = 2012 | title = Science in the Twentieth Century and Beyond | publisher = Polity Press | location = Cambridge | isbn = 978-0-7456-3469-2}}</ref>

=== Theoria de Relativitate e mechanica quantic ===
[[File:Albert Einstein (Nobel).png|thumb|upright|right|Retrato official de Einstein post haber recipite le Premio Nobel de Physica in 1921.]]

In le initio del seculo XX, on initiava un revolution in le physica. Le theorias de longe durata de Newton se monstrava non esser correcte in omne circumstantias. A partir de 1900, Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, e alteres developpava theorias quantic pro explicar resultatos experimental anomale, introducente nivellos discrete de energia. Le mechanica quantic monstrava non solmente que le leges de motion non se applicava in scala parve, sed etiam que le theoria de relativitate general, proponite per Einstein in 1915, monstrava que le fundamento fixe del spatio-tempore, super le qual dependeva tanto le mechanica newtonian quanto le relativitate special, non poteva exister. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg e Erwin Schrödinger formulava le mechanica quantic, que explicava le theorias quantic precedente. Actualmente, le relativitate general e le mechanica quantic es inconsistente inter se, e effortios es in curso pro unificar los.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/string-theory-about-unravel-180953637/|title=Why String Theory Still Offers Hope We Can Unify Physics|first1=Smithsonian|last1=Magazine|first2=Brian|last2=Greene|website=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref>

=== Big Bang ===
Le observation per Edwin Hubble in 1929 que le velocitate con que le galaxias se recede correla positivemente con lor distantia, conduceva al comprension que le universo se expande e le formulation del theoria del Big Bang per Georges Lemaître. George Gamow, Ralph Alpher, e Robert Herman habeva calculate que il debe haber evidentia pro un Big Bang in le temperatura de fundo del universo.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Alpher | first1=Ralph A. | last2=Herman | first2= Robert| year =1948 | title=Evolution of the Universe | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume=162 | issue=4124| pages=774–775 | doi=10.1038/162774b0 | bibcode=1948Natur.162..774A | s2cid=4113488 }}<br />{{cite journal | last1=Gamow | first1=G. | doi=10.1038/162680a0 | title=The Evolution of the Universe | pmid=18893719 | journal=Nature | year=1948 | volume=162 | issue=4122 | pages=680–682 | bibcode=1948Natur.162..680G | s2cid=4793163 }}</ref> In 1964, Arno Penzias e Robert Wilson<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1978/wilson-lecture.pdf|title=Wilson's 1978 Nobel lecture|website=nobelprize.org|access-date=23 March 2005|archive-date=13 April 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050413230649/http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1978/wilson-lecture.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> discoperiva un sibilamento de fundo a 3 Kelvin con lor radio-telescopio de Bell Labs (le antenna Holmdel Horn), que esseva evidentia pro iste hypothesis e formava le base pro un numero de resultatos que adjutava a determinar le etate del universo.

=== Big Science ===
[[File:Trinity Test Fireball 25ms.jpg|thumb|left|Le [[bomba atomic]] introducteva le "[[Big Science]]" in le campo de [[physica]].]]

In 1938, Otto Hahn e Fritz Strassmann discoperiva le fission nuclear per methodos radiochimic, e in 1939 Lise Meitner e Otto Robert Frisch scribeva le prime interpretation theoretic del processo de fission, que postea esseva meliorate per Niels Bohr e John A. Wheeler. Ulterior progressos occurreva durante le Secunde Guerra Mundial, conducente al application practic de radar e al developpamento e uso del bomba atomic. In iste periodo, Chien-Shiung Wu esseva recrutate per le Projecto Manhattan pro adjutar a developpar un processo pro separar metallo de uranium in isotopos U-235 e U-238 per diffusion gasose..<ref>Ronald K. Smeltzer. "Chien-Shiung Wu." Atomic Heritage Foundation, https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/chien-shiung-wu {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190915015223/https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/chien-shiung-wu |date=15 September 2019 }}. Accessed 26 Oct. 2017.</ref> Wu, experto experimental in decadentia beta e physica de interaction debile,<ref name="biography.com">Biography.com Editors. "Chien-Shiung Wu." Biography.com, 2 June 2016, https://www.biography.com/people/chien-shiung-wu-053116 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026054240/https://www.biography.com/people/chien-shiung-wu-053116 |date=26 October 2017 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1063/1.2806727 | title=Chien-Shiung Wu | year=1997 | last1=Garwin | first1=Richard L. | last2=Lee | first2=Tsung-Dao | journal=Physics Today | volume=50 | issue=10 | pages=120–122 | doi-access=free }}</ref> developpava un experimento (vide Experimento Wu) que permitteva al physicos theoretic Tsung-Dao Lee e Chen-Ning Yang refutar experimentalmente le lege de paritate, conquirente un Premio Nobel in 1957.<ref name="biography.com"/>

Ben que le processo habeva comenciate con le invention del cyclotron per Ernest O. Lawrence in le annos 1930, le physica post-le-guerra entrava in un epocha de "Big Science," que exigeva machinas, budgets, e laboratorios massive pro probar lor theorias e avantiar in nove frontes.

=== Avantiamentos in genetica ===
[[File:Template from Crick and Watson’s DNA molecular model, 1953. (9660573227).jpg|thumb|right|Watson e Crick usava multe moldes de aluminium como iste, que representa le base singule [[Adenina]] (A), pro construer un modelo fisic de DNA in 1953.]]

Al initio del seculo XX, le studio del hereditate deveniva un major foco post le rediscoperta in 1900 del lege de hereditate developpate per Mendel.<ref>{{cite book |last=Henig |first=Robin Marantz |title=The Monk in the Garden : The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel, the Father of Genetics |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-395-97765-1 |oclc=43648512 |url=https://archive.org/details/monkingardenlost00heni }}</ref> Le integration de physica e chimia durante le 20esime seculo explicava le proprietates chimic como resultato del structura electronic del atomo. Le travalio de Linus Pauling sur le Natura del Ligamine Chimic applicava le principios del mechanica quantic pro deducer angulos de ligamine in moleculas sempre plus complicate. Le travalio de Pauling culminava con le modellation physic del ADN, le secreto de vita (secundo le parolas de Francis Crick, 1953). In le mesme anno, le experimento Miller-Urey demonstrava, in un simulation de processos primordial, que componentes basic de proteinas, como aminoacidos simplice, pote esser construite ex moleculas plus simplice, initiante decennios de investigation sur le origines chimic de vita. In 1953, James D. Watson e Francis Crick clarificava le structura basic del ADN, le material genetic pro exprimer vita in omne su formas,<ref name=WastonCrick/> construente sur le labor de Maurice Wilkins e Rosalind Franklin, e suggereva que le structura de ADN esseva un helice duplice. In le final del seculo XX, le possibilitates del ingenieria genetic deveniva practic pro le prime vice, e un massive effortio international comenciava in 1990 pro cartographiar tote le genoma human (le Projecto del Genoma Human). Le disciplina de ecologia generalmente tracia su origine al synthesis del evolution darwinian e le biogeographia humboldtian, in le tardo del seculo XIX e le initio del seculo XX.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cittadino |first=Eugene |title=Nature as the laboratory: Darwinian plant ecology in the German Empire, 1880-1900 |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52486-5 |edition= |location=Cambridge}}</ref> Equalmente importante in le ascension de ecologia tamen esseva le microbiologia e le scientia del solo — particularmente le concepto del cyclo de vita, prominente in le obras de Louis Pasteur e Ferdinand Cohn.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ackert |first=Lloyd T. |date=2007-03-01 |title=The "Cycle of Life" in Ecology: Sergei Vinogradskii's Soil Microbiology, 1885–1940 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-006-9104-6 |journal=Journal of the History of Biology |language=en |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=109–145 |doi=10.1007/s10739-006-9104-6 |s2cid=128410978 |issn=1573-0387}}</ref> Le termino "ecologia" esseva coniate per Ernst Haeckel, cuje vision particularmente holistic de natura in general (e le theoria de Darwin in particular) esseva importante in le diffusion del pensamento ecological.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Egerton |first=Frank N. |title=Roots of ecology: antiquity to Haeckel |date=2012 |publisher=University of California press |isbn=978-0-520-27174-6 |location=Berkeley}}</ref> Le campo de ecologia del systema emergeva in le Etate Atomic con le uso de radioisotopos pro visualisar retes alimentari, e per le annos 1970, le ecologia del systema influenceva profundemente le gestion ambiental global.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Laura J. |title=[[Wild by Design]]: The Rise of Ecological Restoration |date=2022 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-97942-0 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>

=== Exploration spatial ===
In 1925, Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin determinava que le stellas esseva principalmente componite de hydrogeno e helium.<ref>Erik Gregersen. "Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin | American Astronomer." Encyclopædia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cecilia-Payne-Gaposchkin {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008214403/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cecilia-Payne-Gaposchkin |date=8 October 2018 }}.</ref> Le astronomo Henry Norris Russell la dissuadeva de publicar iste discoperta in su these de doctorato a causa del credentia largemente acceptate que le stellas habeva le mesme composition que le Terra.<ref name="newn.cam.ac.uk">Rachael Padman. "Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin (1900–1979)." Newnham College Biographies, 2004, http://www.newn.cam.ac.uk/about/history/biographies/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170325225822/http://www.newn.cam.ac.uk/about/history/biographies/ |date=25 March 2017 }}.</ref> Tamen, quatro annos postea, in 1929, Henry Norris Russell arrivava al mesme conclusion per differente rationamento, e le discoperta finalmente esseva acceptate.<ref name="newn.cam.ac.uk"/>

In 1987, le supernova SN 1987A esseva observate per astronomos sur le Terra, tanto visualmente como, in un triumpho pro le astronomia de neutrinos, per le detectores solar de neutrinos in Kamiokande. Ma le fluxo solar de neutrinos esseva un faction de su valor theoreticamente expectate. Iste discrepantia exigeva un modification in certe valores del modello standard pro le physica de particulas.

=== Neuroscientia como un disciplina differente ===
Le comprehension del neurones e del systema nervose deveniva crescentemente precise e molecular durante le seculo XX. Per exemplo, in 1952, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin e Andrew Huxley presentava un modello mathematic pro le transmission de signales electric in neurones del gigantesc axon de un calamar, que illes appellava "potential de action", e como illos es initiate e propagate, cognoscite como le modello Hodgkin–Huxley. In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh e J. Nagumo simplicificava le modello Hodgkin–Huxley, in lo que es cognoscite como le modello FitzHugh–Nagumo. In 1962, Bernard Katz modellava le neurotransmission a transverso del spatio inter neurones cognoscite como synapses. Comenciante in 1966, Eric Kandel e collaboratores examinava cambios biochimic in neurones associate con le apprentissage e le immagazinamento de memoria in Aplysia. In 1981, Catherine Morris e Harold Lecar combinava iste modellos in le modello Morris–Lecar. Tal labor crescentemente quantitative dava initio a numerose modellos biologic de neurones e modellos de computation neural. Le neuroscientia comenciava a esser recognoscite como un disciplina academic distincte in su proprie derecto. Eric Kandel e su collaboratores ha mentionate que David Rioch, Francis O. Schmitt, e Stephen Kuffler ha jocate rolos critic in establir le campo.<ref name=Rioch>{{Cite journal|last1=Cowan|first1=W.M. |last2=Harter|first2=D.H.|last3=Kandel|first3=E.R.|date=2000|title=The emergence of modern neuroscience: Some implications for neurology and psychiatry|journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience|volume=23|pages=345–346 |doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.343|pmid=10845068}}</ref>

=== Tectonica de placa ===
[[File:Wegener Expedition-1912 008.jpg|thumb|right|[[Alfred Wegener]] in Greenland durante le hiberno de 1912–13. Ille es principalmente memorate como le initiator del hypothesis de [[deriva continental]] per suggérer in 1912 que le [[continentes|continentes]] se move lentemente circum le Terra.]]

Le imbraciamento del geologos del theoria del tectonica de placas faceva parte de un ampliation del campo de studio ab le roccas a un studio del Terra como un planeta. Altere elementos de iste transformation include: studio geophysic del interior del Terra, le combination del geologia con meteorologia e oceanographia como un del "scientias de Terra", e comparationes inter le Terra e altere planetas roccose del systema solar.

=== Applicationes ===
In terminos de applicationes, un numero massive de nove technologias esseva developpate in le seculo 20. Technologias como electricitate, le bomba incandescente, le automobile e le phonographo, primo developpate al fin del seculo 19, esseva perfectionate e introducite universalmente. Le prime automobile esseva presentate per Karl Benz in 1885.<ref>American Society of Mechanical Engineers. [https://www.asme.org/topics-resources/content/karl-benz Karl Benz] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211128084747/https://www.asme.org/topics-resources/content/karl-benz |date=28 November 2021 }}.</ref> Le prime volo de un avion occurreva in 1903, e al fin del seculo aviones volava millias post milias in question de horas. Le developpamento del radio, television e computatores causava cambios massive in le diffusion de information. Avantages in biologia anque conduceva a grande augmentos in le production alimentari, como le elimination de maladias como le polio per dr. Jonas Salk. Le cartographia e sequentiation de genes, inventate per le dres. Mark Skolnik e Walter Gilbert, respectivemente, es le duo technologias que rendeva possible le Projecto del Genoma Human. Le informatica, construite super un base de linguistica theoretic, mathematica discrete e ingenieria electric, studia le natura e limites del computation. Sub-campos include computabilitate, complexitate computational, designo de bases de datos, interconnection de computatores, intelligentia artificial, e le designo de hardware de computatores. Un area in le qual progressos in informatica ha contribuite al developpamento scientific general es per facilitar le archivamento a grande scala de datos scientific. Le informatica contemporanee typicamente se distingue per emphasar 'theoria' mathematic in contrasto con le emphase practic del ingenieria de software.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.springboard.com/blog/software-engineering/computer-science-vs-software-engineering/#:~:text=Yes%2C%20there%20is%20a%20difference,emphasizing%20engineering%20principles%20and%20practices|title=Computer Science vs. Software Engineering [Comparison Guide]}}</ref>

Le articulo "Super le Theoria Quantic del Radiation" de Einstein delineava le principios del emission stimulate de photonos. Isto conducerea al invention del laser (amplification de lumine per le emission stimulate de radiation) e del amplificator optic que inaugurava le Epocha del Information..<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hecht|first=Jeff|date=August 10, 2016|title=The Bandwidth Bottleneck That is Throttling the Internet .|work=Scientific American}}</ref> Es le amplification optic que permitte a retes de fibra optic transmitter le capacitate massive de Internet.

Basate sur transmission sin filo de radiation electromagnetic e retes global de operation cellular, le telephono mobile deveniva un medio principal pro acceder le internet.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Handley |first1=Lucy |title=Nearly three quarters of the world will use just their smartphones to access the internet by 2025 |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/01/24/smartphones-72percent-of-people-will-use-only-mobile-for-internet-by-2025.html |access-date=28 September 2022 |work=CNBC |archive-date=28 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928214700/https://www.cnbc.com/2019/01/24/smartphones-72percent-of-people-will-use-only-mobile-for-internet-by-2025.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Developpamentos in politica e economia ===
In le scientia politic durante le seculo 20, le studio de ideologia, comportamentalismo e relationes international conducente a un multitude de subdisciplinas in le campo de "pol-sci", includente theoria del election rational, theoria del votation, theoria ludic (usate etiam in economia), psephologia, geographia politic/geopolitica, anthropologia politic/psychologia politic/sociologia politic, economia politic, analyse de politicas, administration public, analyse politic comparative e studio de pace/conflictos. In economia, John Maynard Keynes promoveva un division inter microeconomia e macroeconomia in le annos 1920. In le economia keynesian tendentias macroeconomic pote supprimer decisiones economic facite per individuos. Governamentos debe promover le demanda aggregate de benes como medio pro fomentar le expansion economic. Post le Secunde Guerra Mundial Milton Friedman creava le concepto de monetarismo. Le monetarismo se concentra in le uso del offerta e demanda de moneta como un methodo pro controlar le activitate economic. In le annos 1970, le monetarismo se adaptava al economia de offerta, que advoca pro le reduction de taxas como un medio pro augmentar le quantitate de moneta disponibile pro le expansion economic. Altere scholas moderne de pensamento economic include le economia nove-classic e le economia neo-keynesian nove. Le economia nove-classic se developpava in le annos 1970, accentuante le microeconomia solide como le base pro le crescimento macroeconomic. Le economia neo-keynesian nove se creava partialmente in responsa al economia nove-classic, e monstra como le competition imperfecte e rigiditates del mercato significa que le politica monetari ha effectos real, e permitte le analyse de politicas differente.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/10.1257/jep.32.3.87|title=The State of New Keynesian Economics: A Partial Assessment|first=Jordi|last=Galí|date=1 August 2018|journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives|volume=32|issue=3|pages=87–112|via=CrossRef|doi=10.1257/jep.32.3.87|hdl=10230/35942|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

=== Developpamentos in psychologia, sociologia e anthropologia ===
Le psychologia in le seculo 20 videva un rejection del theorias de Freud como troppo non-scientific, e un reaction contra le approche atomic del mente de Edward Titchener. Isto conduceva al formulation del comportamentalismo per John B. Watson, que esseva popularisate per B.F. Skinner. Le comportamentalismo proponeva de limitar epistemologicamente le studio psychologic a comportamento evidente, date que illo pote esser mensurate de modo fidibile. Le cognoscimento scientific del "mente" esseva considerate troppo metaphysic, ergo impossibile de attinger. Le ultime decennios del seculo 20 ha vidite le ascension de scientia cognitive, que considera le mente de nove como un subjecto de investigation, usante le instrumentos de psychologia, linguistica, informatica, philosophia e neurobiologia. Nove methodos pro visualisar le activitate del cerebro, como PET scans e CAT scans, ha comenciate a exercer lor influentia, conducente a que alcun cercatores investiga le mente per investigar le cerebro, plus que le cognition. Iste nove formas de investigation presume que un comprehension extensive del mente human es possibile, e que tal comprehension pote esser applicate a altere dominios de recerca, como intelligentia artificial. Le theorias evolutionari esseva applicate al comportamento e introducite in anthropologia e psychologia, per le opera del anthropologo cultural Napoleon Chagnon. Anthropologia physical deveniva anthropologia biologic, incorporante elementos del biologia evolutionari.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajpa.21438|title=The new biological anthropology: Bringing Washburn's new physical anthropology into 2010 and beyond-The 2008 AAPA luncheon lecture|first=Agustin|last=Fuentes|date=6 January 2010|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=143|issue=S51|pages=2–12|via=CrossRef|doi=10.1002/ajpa.21438}}</ref>

Le sociologia american in le annos 1940 e 1950 esseva dominante principalmente per Talcott Parsons, qui argumentava que aspectos del societate que promoveva integration structural esseva ergo "functional". Iste approche de functionalismo structural esseva questionate in le annos 1960, quando sociologos arrivava a vider iste approche como simplificate justification del inequalitates presente in le stato quo. In reaction, le theorias de conflicto esseva developpate, basate in parte super le philosophias de Karl Marx. Le theoricos de conflicto videva le societate como un arena in le qual differente gruppos compete pro le controlo de ressources. Le interactionismo symbolic anque deveniva central al pensamento sociologic. Erving Goffman videva le interactiones social como un apparition scenic, con individuos preparante se "in coulisses" e essayante controlar lor publico per gerer lor impression.<ref>https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology2ndedition/chapter/chapter-22-social-interaction/</ref> Ben que iste theorias sia actualmente prominente in le pensamento sociologic, altere approches existe, includente le theorias feminista, post-structuralista, de election rational, e postmodernista.

In le medie del seculo 20, multe del methodologias del studios anthropologic e ethnographic precedente esseva reevalutate con un attention al ethica de recerca, durante que al mesme tempore le ambito de investigation se ha ampliate multo ultra le studio traditional de "culturas primitive".

== Seculo XXI ==
[[File:CMS Higgs-event.jpg|thumb|Un possibile signatura de un boson de Higgs ex un collision simulate de proton-proton. Ille decadita quasi immediatemente in duo jets de [[hadron]]s e duo [[electron]]s, visibile como lineas.]]

=== Boson de Higgs ===
Le 4 de julio, 2012, physicos qui laborava al Large Hadron Collider del CERN annunciava que illes habeva discoperite un nove particula subatomic multo simile al boson de Higgs, un clave potential pro comprender proque particulas elementar ha massa e, in effecto, pro le existentia de diversitate e vita in le universo.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/05/science/cern-physicists-may-have-discovered-higgs-boson-particle.html?pagewanted=3&_r=1&ref=science |work=The New York Times |first=Dennis |last=Overbye |title=Physicists Find Particle That Could Be the Higgs Boson |date=4 July 2012 |access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-date=7 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607031642/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/05/science/cern-physicists-may-have-discovered-higgs-boson-particle.html?pagewanted=3&_r=1&ref=science |url-status=live }}</ref> Pro le momento, alcun physicos lo nomina "le particula como Higgs".<ref name="nytimes.com"/> Peter Higgs esseva un del sex physicos, laborante in tres gruppos independente, qui, in 1964, inventava le notion del campo de Higgs ("melassa cosmic"), junctemente con Tom Kibble, Carl Hagen, Gerald Guralnik, François Englert e Robert Brout.<ref name="nytimes.com" />

{{Referentias}}

{{Historia del scientia}}

[[Categoria:Historia del scientia]]